THE 





POCKET BOOK, 


EDITED BY 




Editor of the Mining Herald. 



Shenandoah, Schuylkill Co., Pa. : 

THE MINING HERALD COMPANY, Limited, 


No. 15 South Main Street. 

1888. 
































Scrmton Brass* File Works. 


JAMES M. EVERHART, 


MANUFACTURER OF 


FOR RESISTING MINE WATER. 

ALSO, 

CARR AND WILCOX'S PATENT CUT FILES. 




Will cut Faster, wear Longer, and Clog less than any File in the 
Market. Best for Mine Drills. 

EVERHART’S MINERS’ SAFETY LAMP, 

SEE CUT. 

DAVIES’, STEVENSON, CLANNY, 

and BOSSES SAFETY LAMPS, 

OF ALL PATTERNS. 

MINERS’ COPPER, BRASS and TIN LAMPS, 

A FINE ASSORTMENT 

ANEROID BAROMETERS 
Mine Water Gauges 

WITH SPIRIT LEVEL. 

PNEUMATIC SIGNAL GAUGES 

AND MOUTH PIECES TO ATTACH 

TO SPEAKING TUBES. 

THE BEST IMPROVEMENT OUT. 

—JECTOR»S^s— 

Ejectors for pumping out Mines with least expense. 

STEAM TRAPS AND PIPE COVERING, SAVES 30 PER CENT. 

WATCHMAN TIME DETECTORS. 

Lever Weight and Patent Ball Gaoge Cocks, 

A LIBERAL DISCOUNT TO THE TRADE. SEND FOR CIRCULAR. 



















ENGINE and MACHINE 


Plans and Specifications for Coal Breakers 


CO., 


AND ALL OTHER MINING PURPOSES, 

FURNISHED ON APPLICATION. 


DIRECT-ACTING HOISTING ENGINES, with cast iron Cone Drums. WROUGHT IRON 
CAGES, with safety attachments against the breaking of the ropes. TOP 
SHEAVES, with wrought iron arms. VENTILATING FANS, up to 
35 feet diameter. 









Mineral Lands Prospected 

WITH THE 


DIAMOND DRILL 


Continuous Sections or Bores Produced, 

Showing depth, thickness, and quality of veins 
and deposits. 

SATISFACTION GUARANTEED. 


This is the only reliable method of prospecting bv bor¬ 
ing, and parties having mineral lands to prospect, whether 
Coal, Iron, Lead, Copper, Gold or Silver, &c., should write 
us for prices, &c., before spending their money in trying 
to test by inferior methods. 

■WE ALSO SOLS 

Artesian Wells 

More rapidly than can be done in any other way 
and perfectly round and straight, admitting a 
larger pump in proportion to size of hole bored 
than other wells, and supply them with pumps. 

DIAMOND DRILLS are also useful in boring for 
other purposes, such as boring anchor bolt holes in foun¬ 
dations without jarring the masonry; for boring holes in 
the rock for hydraulic elevators ; for boring into mines to 
carry steam from the surface; in short, for any purpose 
where a straight round hole is required in rock, whether 
perpendicular or horizontal. 

We manufacture Diamond Drills for all purposes of 
rock boring, also Engines, Pumps, Lathes, Drill Presses, 
Drill Press Chucks, &c. 

GENERAL REPAIRING PROMPTLY ATTENDED TO. 

ADDRESS, 

PENN’A DIAMOND DRIED CO., 

ROOM 8, No, 110 SOUTH CENTRE ST., P0TTSV1LLE, PA. 


Chas. P. Hunt. 


Elwood H. Hunt. 


CHAS. P. HUNT & BRO., 

HARDWARE« MI SUPPLIES, 

No. 112 South Main Street, 

WILKES-BARRE, PA. 

We carry the LARGEST STOCK of MINE SUPPLIES 
kept in the Valley. Among our specialties are the fol¬ 
lowing, always in stock : 

English Brattice Cloth , Safety Lamps , Gauges , 
Safety Squibs , Fire Briclc y Pine 7‘ar, Gas 
Tar , Steam Pipe and Fittings , Eddy 
Valves , Steam Gauges , &c., &c. 

ATLANTIC GIANT POWDER, 

ELECTRIC BATTERIES, 

Fuses, Caps, Connecting Wire, Patent Mine Drills, Sc. 

E3. H. HTJnSTT, 

Wire Coal Screen Manufacturer, 

HCANAL * STREET, * NEAR*UNION,K- 

WILKES-BARRE, PA. 

BORDERS SOLICITED AND PROMPTLY FILLED. 




ALLENTOWN, PA- 


Headquarters for 

MINE, 

MILL, 

FURNACE, 

ENGINEER AND RAILROAD 

SUPPLIES 


PUMPS AND ENGINES. 


Flans and Specifications Furnished. 
SEND FOR PRICE LIST AND QUOTATIONS. 

WM. H. TAYLOR & CO.* 


ALLENTOWN, PA. 






Vertical and Horizontal Steam Engines, 

Shafting, Couplings, Hangers and Pulleys. 


DAVIS & THOMAS, 



SOLE AGENTS, 


ALLENTOWW, r»A. 














THE DICKSON 


liFACnil Cl 


Manufacturers of 


ENGINES, LOCOMOTIVES, 

Boilers, Pumps, Car Wheels, 

MIKING MACHINERY 
^§§#r frlili £Eprj>gc.»- 


DEALER IN MINE SUPPLIES, 


Canal Street, Wilkes-Barre, Pa. 
PENH AYENUE AND CLIFF ST., 


SCRANTON, PENNA. 








THE 


MINE FOREMAN’S 


POCKET BOOK, 


EDITED BY 


y 



THOMAS J. FOSTER, 

Editor of Mining Herald. 


Entered according to act of Congress, in the yeai*j883, by The Min 
ing Herald Company, Limited, in the office or the Librarian 
of Congress, at Washington, D. C. 

■ /L 18 & 
Ho 

OP 

Shenandoah Schuylkill Co., 

THE MINING HERALD COMPANY, Limited. 

15 South Main Street. 

1883. 





TUrs\ 
pS s 


\&/ 

■ F X«j 


Hovells’lUliiiiEDrill 


STILL AHEAD. 


DEMAND CONTINUALLY INCREASING- 


The large sales for these machines is the best testimonial 
to their true merit. 

No. 0 is a light simple machine, having a lug and nut to 
hold bearing to any direction given. 

No. 2 is a strong machine with double bearing for feed 
bar. 

No. 3.—This is a cog machine and especially adapted for 
gangways and narrow work in the mines, also for drilling 
in slate, fire clay or shale—can be worked with handle on 
either side or both sides at once or from the rear. 

Correspondence solicited and all information desired 
will be promptly furnished by addressing 



LOCK BOX, 1097. 

PLYMOUTH, Luzerne County, Pa. 


N. B.—Sole owners of patents and manufacturers. 




HOWELLS’ MINING DRILL COMPANY, 


PLYMOUTH, LUZERNE CO., PA. 

LOCK BOX, 1097. 



NO. 3 Coal Machine. 


Send for Circulars and Price List. 





Leonard Bros., 

514 LSCKSWMNMYENUE 

SCRANTON, PENNA. 





Genuine 


DRILLING 

MACHINE, 

Best and most durable, 
easiest to work and keep 
in order. 




AND ALL GIVE SATISFACTION. 

Each Machine Guaranteed to Gfive Satisfaction 
or Money Refunded. 












-CONTENTS.*- 


PAGE. 

Inspectors of Mines of the United States.11,12, 13 

Mine Inspectors’ Clerks. 11 

Examining Comniitttees. 11 , 12 

Production and Area of U. S. Coal Fields. 11 

Production and Coal Areas of the Globe. 15 

Tonnage by Decades of Anthracite Coal. 15 

Tonnage (Anthracite) ot last Decade by Regions. 16 

Coal Areas and Per Cent, of the whole owned by the Several An¬ 
thracite Companies. 16 

Tonnage (Anthracite) of the Different Transportation Companies 

from 1870 to 18-12. . 

Prices of Anthracite Coal, Bar Iron and Scotch Pig Iron in New 

York, for 57 Years.18, 

Coal Dealers' Computation Table for Ascertaining the Price on 

any Number of Pounds of Coal. 

Rating of Collieries, Philadelphia & Reading Railroad.21. 22, 

Summary of Persons Employed, Coal Mined, Powder Used, etc., 

in Coal Mines of Pennsylvania, 1881. 24 

Summary of Fatal and Non-Fatal Casualties in Coal Mines of 

Pennsylvania, 1881. 25 

Analytical Table of American Coals. 26 

Vertical Section in Southern Anthracite Coal Fields of Penn’a. 27 

Vertical Section Anthracite Coal Measures, Nanticoke Basin. 28 

Vertical Section Anthracite Coal Field at Hazleton, Pa. 29 

Vertical Section ConnellsviUe Coal Region. 30 


17 

19 

20 
28 


MATHEMATICS. 

Arithmetical Signs Used in Pocket Book. 

Algebraic Characters. 

Trigonometry, Terms Used in . 

Trigonometrical Equivalents. 

’Table of Natural Sines. 

On the Use of the Table of Natural Sines.35, 36, 

Mensuration... 


31 

32 

33 

33 

34 

37 

38 


MINE SURVEYING. 

Compass Surveying. 39 

Vernier Surveying..39,40, 41 

Plotting. 41 

Levelling. .41, 42, 43 

How to Use the Gradometer. 43 

To Ascertain the Scale of » Plan or Map wheu it is not Stated. 43 

Useful Numbers in Surveying. 44 

Chaining on Slopes.... 44 

To Set Out a Right Angle with a Chain. 44 

Computation of Acreage. 44 


NOTES ON MINING. 

Prospecting.. 

Shaffing and Tunneling... 

Haulage. 

Tail Rope sy tern. 

Endless Chain System.. 

Endless Rope System. . 

Mine Locomotives. 

Working of Bituminous Seams. 

Longwall... 

Pillar and Stall..... 

Proportion of Tillars to Openings. 

Working of Anthracite Seams.51 to 


45 

45 

46 

47 

48 
48 

48 

49 

50 

50 

51 
56 
























































PRODUCE OF COAL SEAMS. 

PAGE • 

Specific Gravity and Weight of Coal. 56 

Produce of Bituminous Seams.:. 57 

Number of Tons of Coal Under a Squa e Mile. 58 

Produce of Anthracite Coal Seams. 58, 59 

VENTILATION. 

Atmospheric Air. 60 

Pressure of Air at Different Heights of Barometer. 61 

Natural Ventilation.61. 62 

Furnace Ventilation.63 to 67 

Friction of Air in Mines.67 to 78 

Splitting the Current. 78 

Ascensional Ventilation. 79 

Mechanical Ventilators.79, 80, 81 

Fans, Rules for. 81 

Measurement of Ventilation.82 to 85 

Airways, To Find the Area of Different Forms of.. 85 

To Find the Quantity of Air by the Thermometer. 86 

The Water Gauge.86, 87 

Gases Met With in Mines.. 

Nitrogen. 87 

Oxygen. 88 

Hydrogen. 89 

Carbureted Hydrogen. 89 

Fire-Damp. 89 

After-Damp. 90 

Carbonic Oxide, or White Damp. 91 

Sulphureted Hydrogen.91, 92 

Weight and Chemical Formula of Different Gases. 92 

Quantity of Air Required. 93 

Treatment of Persons Overcome with Gas.93 to 95 

Injury by Machinery, Rules to be Followed in the Absence of 

Surgical Aid.96, 97 

SAFETY LAMPS. 

The Davy Lamp. 98 

The Stephenson Lamp. 98 

The Illuminating Power of Various Lamps. 98 

Inflammable Vapors Given Off by the Gauzes.98, 99 

Velocity Necessary to Explode Lamps.99, 100 

THE BAROMtCTER AND THERMOMETER. 

The Barometer. 101 

The Thermometer. 102 

Pressure of Air as Shown by Barometer and Water Gauge. 103 

HEAT. 

Units of Heat. 104 

The Effect of Heat on Different Meta’s.104 

Communication of Heat. 104 

Standard Points. 105 

Expansion of Solids. 105 

Expansion of Liquids. 105 

Expansion of Gases. 106 

Volume of a Gaseous Body at Different Temperatures.106, 107 

Colors Expressive of Temperature. 108 

Temp ring Steel. 108 

STEAM, ENGINES, BOILERS, PUMPS, AC. 

Steam, Temperature, Pressure of, &c. 109 

Steam Engines, Duty of..*. 110 

“ “ To Find the Horse-Power of. 110 



























































PAGE. 

Steam Engines, Approximate Velocities for the Pistons of.. Ill 

The Amount of Steam an Engine Uses. Ill 

Friction of Engines. 112 

Average Pressure of Steam in Engine Cylinders.." 112 

Winding Engines. 113 

Hoisting Drums for Flat Ropes. 114 

Cone Drums. 114 

Pumping Engines. 115 

Quantity ot Water an Engine will Pump. 115 

Useful Numbers for Pumps. 115 

Boilers. 116 

Fuel, Relative Heating Power of.. 116 

Thickness of Boiler Iron and Pressure Allowed by 1 aws of U. S... 117 

Wrought Iron Flues. 117 

Shells of Boilers, Resistance to Bursting Pressure. 118 

Weight and Thickness of Boiler Iron. 119 

Rules for Heating and Grate Surfaces. 119 

Some Notes on Boilers. 120 

Hints to Firemen..120, 121 

Giffard’s Injector. 122 

Pressure of Steam at. Different Temperatures. 122 

Elastic Force of Steam and Corresponding Temperature of Water 123 

WATER 

Weight of Water in Pipes of any Diameter. 124 

Weight 8nd Measure of Water in Wells &c. 125 

Number of Gallons Contained in any Cistern. 125 

Pressure of Wa'er in Pipes at Various Depths. 126 

Thickness and Weight of Metal Required for Pipes Under Various 
Heads of Water. 126 

STRENGTH OF MATERIALS. 

Ropes and Chains. 127 

Flat Ropes, Aeight and Strength of.. 127 

Breaking Strain of Hemp Ropes... 128 

Weight and Strength of Chains. 128 

How to Use Wire Rope...128, 129 

Wire Rope for Derricks, &c.. 131 

Working Load, Breaking Strain, etc., of Hoisting Hope . 132 

Working Load, etc., of Transmission Ropes. 133 

Splicing Wire Rope.134, 135 

Ultimate Transverse Strength of Beams.i. 136 

Strength of Hoiled Iron Beams. 136 

Strength of Columns. 137 

Strength of Rectangular Pillars of Wood. 137 

Relative Strength ot Materials in Long Columns. 138 

Relative Strength of Round and Flat Ends in Long Columns. 138 

Relative Strength of Section in a Long Solid Column. 138 

Hollow Columns. 138 

Relative Breaking Weight of Iron Pillars. 138 

Safe Load for Hollow Cast Iron Pillars. 139 

Resistance of Materials to Breaking Across. 40 

Greatest Safe Load on Piers, Ac. 140 

Notes on Strength of Materials., 111 

MACHINERY. 

Shafting. 142 

Strength of Wrought Iron Shafting. 142 

Co-efneients of Friction in Axles. 143 

Frictional Resistance of Shafting. 143 

Strength of chatting to Resist Torsion. 144 
























































PAGE. 

Belting and Velocity of Pulleys.144 to 146 

Teethed Wheels.-. 147 

Work. 148 

Work of Animals.148, 149 

SPECIFIC GRAVITY, WEIGHT AND PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS. 

To find the Specific Gravity of a Solid. 150 

To find the Specific Gravity oi a Fluid. 150 

To find the Magnitude of a Body from its We glu. 150 

To find the Weight of a Body from its Magnitude. 150 

Weight of different Substances.. 151 

Weight of Wrought Iron, flat, per lineal foot. 152 

Weight of Round Iron per lineal foot. 158 

Weigi.t of Square Iron per lineal foot. 153 

Number of Nails per pound. 154 

Iron required for One Mile of Track. 154 

Splices and Bolts for One Mite of Track. 155 

Weight of one hundred Bolts of different sizes. 155 

Weight of Sheet and Plate Iron. 156 

Shrinkage of Castings. 157 

Sizes and We gilts of Wrought Iron Welded Tubes for Gas, Steam 

and Water. 157 

Force of Gravity.157, 158 

CHEMICAL MEMORANDA. 

Table of Elementary Substances.159, 160 

Binary Compounds. 161 

Nomenclature. 161 

Common Names of Chemical Substances. 162 

Table of Volumes of Gases absorbed by one hundred gallons of 
Water. 163 

USEFUL MEMORANDA. 

Circumference of the Earth, &c.161, 165 

Quick Methods for Calculating. 165 

Measures of Length. 166 

Measures of Area. 167 

Measures of Weight.167, 168 

Solid Measures. 168 

Measures of Capacity.168, 169 

Dry Measure. 169 

Measures of Value.169, 170 

Comparative Table of Monej a. 170 

Measures of Velocity. 170 

Measures of Heaviness. 171 

Measures of Pressure. 171 

Measures Of Work. 172 

Measures of Power.-. 172 

The Statical Moment. 172 

Absolute Units of Force. 173 

Light. 173 

Combinations of Color. 173 

Contrasts of Colors. 174 

Sound. 174 

Miscellaneous Items. 175 

Feeding Properties of different Vegetables. 176 

Useful Information. 176 

Table of Colors used in Drawing. 177 
























































EDITOR’S ANNOUNCEMENT. 


The demand for the Mine Fobeman’s Pocket Book has 
far exceeded our expectations, and the several large 
editions issued during the past few years were so rapidly 
exhausted that we were unable to issue the third edition 
before the second was fairly disposed of. This demon¬ 
strates that American miners thoroughly appreciate tech¬ 
nical education and realize its importance. This edition, 
it will be seen, has been greatly enlarged, improvements 
having been added to the subjects of Ventilation, Engines 
and Boilers, Ropes, Drums, Mathematics, etc., with a de¬ 
partment on Machinery, etc. We have inserted the table 
of Natural Sines instead of that on Incline Measures, and 
largely explained its use, which we think our patrons will 
find more serviceable without the calculations requiring 
its use having lost any of their simplicity. We are in¬ 
debted for material to the Colliery Manager’s Pocket 
Book, Almanac and Diary and the Colliery Manager’s Cal¬ 
culator of Mr. W. Fairley, M. E., of England, Molesworth’s 
Pocket Book, Brigg’s Useful Information and other author¬ 
ities, most of whom have received credit in the body of 
the book. 



Hunt & Connell’s 

SOLID SPOUT 


Miners’ Lamp, 



DEALERS IN 


MINE SUPPLIES, 

SAFETY LAMPS, 
Anemometers and Miners’ Dials. 

HUNT & CONNELL, Limited, 

SCRANTON, PRNNA, 








11 


NAMES 

OF THE 

INSPECTORS OF MINES 

OF THE 

UNITED STATES. 


PENNSYLVANIA. 

ANTHRACITE REGION. 

First or Pottsville District .— Samuel Gay, Esq., Pottsville, 
Schuylkill County, Pa. 

Second or Shenandoah District .— Robert Mauchline, Esq., 
Shenandoah, Schuylkill County, Pa. 

Third or Shamokin District .— James Ryan, Esq., Ashland, 
Schuylkill County, Pa. 

Middle District of Luzerne , Lackawanna and Carbon Coun¬ 
ties. —G. M. Williams, Esq., Wilkesbarre, Luzerne County, 
Pa. 

Eastern District of Luzerne , Lackawanna and Carbon 
Counties .— Patrick Blewitt, Esq., Scranton, Lackawanna 
County, Pa. 

South District of Luzerne, Lackawanna and Carbon Coun¬ 
ties .— James E. Roderick, Esq., Hazleton, Luzerne County, 
Pa. 

MINE INSPECTORS’ CLERKS. 

For the Mining District of Schuylkill. —E. J. Gaynor, Esq., 
Pottsville, Schuylkill County, Pa. 

For the Mining District of Luzerne and Carbon Counties .— 
Michael McNertney, Esq., Wilkesbarre, Luzerne County, 
Pa. 

EXAMINING COMMITTEES. 

Mining District of Schuylkill County. 

Heber S. Thompson, M. E., Pottsville, Schuylkill County, 
Pa. 

John R. Hoffman, M. E., Shamokin, Northumberland 
County, Pa. 

George Rodgers, Esq., St. Clair, Schuylkill County, Pa. 

James Hillhouse, Esq., Shenandoah, Schuylkill County, 
Pa. 

Hon. John F. Welsh, Forestville, Schuylkill County, Pa. 



12 


Luzerne and Carbon Counties. 

Benjamin Hughes, Esq., Hyde Park, Lackawanna County 
Pa. 

John R. Davis, Esq., Scranton, Lackawanna County, Pa. 

James O’Halloran, Esq., Moosic, Lackawanna Co., Pa. 

William Bestford, Esq., Port Blanchard, Lackawanna 
County, Pa. 

James Bryden, Esq., Pittston, Luzerne County, Pa. 

1 BITUMINOUS REGION. 

First District (embracing the counties of Greene, Washing- 
ington, Fayette, Somerset , Bedford and that portion of Alle¬ 
gheny lying south of the Ohio, Monongahela and Youghio- 
gheny rivers ).— James Louttit, Esq., Monongahela City, 
Washington County, Pa. 

Second District (embracing the counties of Beaver , Butler, 
Armstrong, Indiana, Westmoreland and that portion of Alle¬ 
gheny lying north of the Ohio, Monongahela and Youghio- 
gheny rivers). —J. J. Davis, Esq., Brady’s Bend, Armstrong 
County, Pa. 

Third District (embracing the counties of Lawrence, Mercer , 
Crawford, Erie, Warren, Forest, Venango, Clarion, Jefferson , 
Clearfield, Cameron, Elk and McKean ).— Thomas K. Ad¬ 
ams, Wheeler, Mercer County, Pa. 

Fourth District (embracing the counties of Cambria , Blair, 
Huntingdon , Centre, Clinton, Lycoming, Sullivan, Potter, 
Tioga and Bradford ).— Roger Hampson, Towanda, Brad¬ 
ford County, Pa. 

OHIO. 

For the State .— Andrew Roy., Esq., Columbus, O. ; as¬ 
sistant, Jacob J. Klein, Crystal Springs, Stark County, O. 

IOWA. 

For the State. — Parker C. Wilson, Esq., DesMoines, la. 

MARYLAND. 

District of Allegheny and Garrett Counties .— Thomas 
Brown, Esq., Frostburg, Alleghany County, Md. 

INDIANA. 

For the State. — Thomas Wilson, Jr., Washington, Ind. 


County. 

ILLINOIS. 

Inspector. 

Address. 

Bureau, 

Fryar Jobling, 

Tiskilwa. 

Clinton, 

F. A. SlETZF, 

Carlyle. 

Gallatin, 

Grundy, 

James B. Hale, 

Cottonwood. 

Wm. J. Mak omb, 

Braceville. 

Henry, 

Isaac Pyle, 

Alex. Hutton, 

Cambridge. 

Jackson, 

Murphysboro 

Johnson, 

W. B. Lewis, 

New Burnside. 

Knox, 

F. R. Jelliff, 

Galesburg. 

LaSalle, 

Livingston, 

Alexander Ronald, 

Streator. 

T C. Robinson, 

Pontiac. 

Logan, 

Jno. H. Rhodes, 

Lincoln 

McDonough, 

John Harper, 

Colchester. 

McLean, 

Iva Merchant, 

Bloomington. 

Macoupin, 

Thos. J. Carroll, 

Bunker Hill. 

Madison, 

Ed. J. Malloy, 

Alton. 

Marion, 

Seth E. Hills, 

Odin. 

Menard, 

Wm. S. Wood, 

Petersburg. 

Mercer, 

Wm. H. McLaughlin, 

Viola. 

Montgomery, 

Edmund Fish, 

Hillsboro. 

Morgan, 

L. S. Olmsted, 

Jacksonville 

Peoria, 

Albert Miranda, 

Edwards’ Station 

Perry, 

Thomas Bailie, 

Duquoin 

Randolph, 

R. B. Houston, 

Sparta. 

Rock Island, 

John Evans, 

Rock Island. 

Saline, 

Sangamon, 

James W. Russell, 

Carrier’s Mills 

Adam Jac obs, 

Springfield. 

Scott, 

Charles Crisp, 

Oxville. 

Stark, 

Henry H. Oliver, 

Elmira. 

St Clair, 

Nicholas Kloes, 

W. Belleville. 

Tazewell, 

Joseph Lamb, 

Hilton. 

Vermillion, 

Isaac Bracewell, 

Danville 

Warren, 

Washington, 

Thos. S. McClanahan, 

Monmouth. 

Mark Durant, 

Dubois. 

Will, 

Richard Moffatt, 

Braidwood. 

Williamson, 

James Thompson, 

Carterville. 

Woodford, 

D. H. Davison, 

Minonk. 


14 


AREA OF THE COAL FIELDS OF THE UNITED 
STATES, AND PRODUCTION FOR 1880. 




Area 

Tons pro¬ 

States and Territories. 

square 

duced in 



miles. 

1882. 

1 Ppnn’a 5 Anthracite .... 

472 

30,537,997 

( Bituminous .... 

12,302 

25,663,283 

2 Ohio, 

do . 

10,000 

9,450,000 

3 Illinois, 

do .... 

36,800 

9,115,653 

4 Iowa, 

do . • ... 

18,000 

3,127,700 

8 Maryland, 

do .... 

550 

1,591,918 

7 W.Virginia, 

do . 

16,000 

1,900,000 

5 Indiana, 

do . 

6,450 

2,000,000 

6 Missouri, 

do. 

26,887 

2,000,000 

10 Kentucky, 

do. 

12,871 

1,275,000 

11 Tennessee, 

do . 

5,100 

852,000 

14 California, 

do. 

• • • • • 

700,000 

9 Colorado, 

do . 


1,588,000 

13 Kansas, 

do . 

22,256 

770,000 

16 Oregon, 

do . 


300,000 

12 Alabama, 

do . 

5,330 

800,000 

18 Washington, 

do . . . 


263,256 

15 Wyoming, 

do . 


624,700 

22 Virginia, 

do . 

185 

100,000 

20 Michigan, 

do . 

6,700 

140,000 

21 Nebraska, 

do ... 

3,000 

100,000 

17 Utah, 

do . 


275,000 

23 R. Island, 

do . 

500 

15,000 

24 Arkansas, 

do . 

12,000 

• • • 

25 Texas, 

do . 

20,000 

• • • 

19 Georgia, 

do . 


150,000 

26 Arizona, 

do . 

30,000 

. . . 

Total . . 


, , , 

93,338,507 



























15 


COAL AREAS AND OUT PUT OF THE GLOBE 
(ESTIMATED.) 


Countries. 

Area 

Square 

Miles. 

Tons—1870. j 

Tons—1880. 

Great Britain . . . 

11,900 

110,431,192 

* 

146,818,622 

United States . . . 

192,000 

32,863,690 

71.067,576 

Germany. 

1,770 

34,003,004 

52,047,832 

France. 

2,086 

13,179,708 

19,412,112 

Belgium . . . 

510 

13,697,118 

16,887,047 

Austria. 

1,800 

8,355,944 

16,500,000 

Russia. 

30,000 

829.745 

3,218,661 

Spain. 

3,501 

661,927 

800,000 

Nova Scotia. . . . 

18,000 

625,769 

1,032,710 

Australia. 

24,840 

868,564 

| 1,571,736 

India. 

2,004 

500,000 

4,000,000 

Japan.j 

5,000 


850,000 

Vancouver’s Island.. 

390 

29,863 

282,128 

China, Chili, etc . . 

. . . 

4,000,000 

4,300,000 

Total. 

293,801 

214,046,524 j 

338,788,424 


ANTHRACITE COAL TONNAGE BY DECADES. 


Year. 

Schuylkill. 

Lehigh. 

Wyoming. 

Total. 

1820.. . 

# 

365 



1830.. . 

89,984 

41,750 

43,000 

174,734 

1840., . 

490,596 1 

225,313 

148,470 

864,379 

1850.. . 

1,840,620 | 

690,456 

827,823 

3,358,899 

I860. .. 

3,749,632 j 

1,821,674 j 

2,941,817 

8,513,123 

1870.. . 

4,968,157 

3,239,374 1 

7,974,660 

1,6182,191 

1880.. . 

7,554,742 

4,463,221 1 

11,419,279 

23,437,242 

































ANTHRACITE COAL TONNAGE OF LAST DECADE 
BY REGIONS. 


Year. 

Schuylkill. 

Lehigh. 

Wyoming. 

Total. 

1871.. . 

6,552,772 

2,235,707 

6,911,242 

15,699,721 

1872 . . 

6,694,890 

3,873,H39 

9,101,549 

19,669,778 

1873.. . 

7,212,601 

3,705,596 

10,309,755 

21,227,952 

1874.. . 

6,866,877 

3,773,836 

9,504,408 

20,145,121 

1875.. . 

6.281,712 

2,834,605 

10,596,155 

19,712,472 

1876. . 

6,221,934 

3,854,919 

8,424,158 

18,501,311 

1877.. . 

8,195,042 

4,332,760 

8,300,377 

20,828.179 

1878.. . 

6,282,226 

3,237,449 

8,085,587 

17,605,262 

1879.. 

8,960,329 

4,595,567 

12,586,293 

26,142,689 

1880.. . 

7,554,742 

4,463,221 

11,419,279 

23,437,242 

1881.. . 

9,253,958 

5,294,676 

13,951,383 

28,500,016 

1882.. . 

9.459,288 

5,689 437 

13,971,371 

29,120,096 


ANTHRACITE COAL AREAS OWNED BY THE SEV¬ 
ERAL COMPANIES IN THE DIFFERENT COAL 
FIELDS AND THE PER CENT. OF THE WHOLE IN 
TONS. 


[ From Mr. P. W. Sheafcr's Diagram .] 


Company. 

Schuylkill. 

Middle. | 

Wyoming. 

Acres. 

Per 

[Cent 

Acres. 

Per 

Cent 

Acres. 

Per 

Cent 

Lehigh Valley. 



18,036 

7,000 

24 

8 

6,934 
7.400 
| 20,042 

3,500 
10,000 

5,823 

4 

5 
12 

3 

6 

6 

Lehigh and Wilkesbarre. 

Delaware and Hudson. 

7,600 

8 

Delaware, Lack. & Western.... 1 . 

.1. 


Pennsylvania Coal Co.' . 

1 


Phil. & Read. Coal & Iron Co.. 

Pennsylvania Railroad Co. 

Girard Estate. 

65,306 

6,000 

i 70 
6 

23,250 

9,000 

6,000 

1,373 

32 

9 

8 

2 

Gilbert & Co. 

1 



Alliance Coal Mining Co. 

3,172 

11,362 

i 3 



All others. 

Total. 

13 

( 15,981 

17 

73,021 

64 

93,440 

i 100 1 80,640 

100 

126,720 

100 

















































ANTHRACITE COAL TONNAGE OF THE DIFFERENT TRANSPOR¬ 
TATION COMPANIES FROM 1870 TO 1882. 


17 


i 

< 

M 

W 

H 

7i 

< 

W 

a 

H 

« 

ft 

« 

n 

co 

M 

P 

M 

-0 

H 

co 

W 

o 

M 

H 

P 

n 

M 

M 

H 

oo 

H 

« 

P 

o 

w 

M 

to 

<1 

n 

w 

a 

H 

Z 

O 

P 

P 

A 

W 

P 

M 

P 

a 

o 

o 


00 

CO 

r—I 

« 

O 

P 

P 

o 

m 

Eh 

O 

P 

P 

o 

0 

tf 

■Hj 

o 

M 

H 


Total. 

16,182,191 

15,699,721 

19,669,778 

21,227,952 

20,145,121 

19,712,472 

18,501,011 

20,828,179 

17,605,262 

26,142,689 

23,427,242 

28,500,016 

29,120,096 

N YLE&WRK... 

lOCOOptMOlOiOClCO^OH 
• < 52? <:sicc ’ c,:iO05C0<:, 0 ( ^t0'-H 
: CH t> io 

ic ec co'iVco'o'ic'coiVrH'io'o' 
;iOCOCOO)OMt't'WH«OCO 
rHCOdTHClTflT^'^cO 

Penn a Coal Co. 

I OK5NH<IOt»f-lHlMOtOOH 
HMfflOlMt'NHeciOOCOIN 
0_«»l-'»eOCOCRO.O H t MO0 
— C/D o' SO CO CO tClV 00 "lO~of 
C 0 t+iOOO<M-**i,-H,o<MC 0 1 ^O 
T—^GO '•H Ci.«'Hll r l r l 0 » ^ 1 — 1 Tt< 
rH rH rH rH rH rH rH rH rH rH 

Penna RRCo. 

1 coio^H^ajiOT^^cD^'co^ 
cococoHt>*»Hcoasi>ococot>* 

CKN^H-ft^iNCOCOGOcDHCC 
j C^O^rH iO <C I ><0 lO CO^O ODOICO^ 

Del & Hud Can’l q 0 

2,318,073 
1,955,737 
2,882,479 
2,732,267 1 
2,290,791 
2,843,229; 
1,809,190 ! 
1,787,470; 
52,046,23 
3,014,117 
2,674,705 

3,211,196 

3,203,168 

Del, Lack & West’ll 
R. R. Co. 

2,117,612 

1,730,242 

12,520,330 

2,952,941 

2,353,539 

2,833,670 

1,998,654 

2,089,523 

2,180,673 

3,867,405 

3,550,348 

4,388,970 

4,638,717 

Cent’l R R Coof N J 

C50^a5MNOOC5COHrt<Cl 

CO iO H H O O Ci O D iO CDO 

^iq^co rH o^05 i <Di0 > 05 > iq > HT^q > 

<o io co 06 crTio'oo't^T^io'cTic'T-r 

O00i005O«0NC0«0C'IL>'C0H 

rH'i-ToTcf ®<fef cfefofcOCO TP t*T 

Lehigh Valley R R 
Co. 

CO 00 rH — 1 lOrJHOOMCOOO 
OOtOr-ieClMCHlfiOOr-UOCOt^-^ 
ionh i>^oq_C'j i co > co_cq_o^io - oo ii i'^ 
CGc5'cPr-?O>in'‘Ot~C0lGti<'r-i'cO 
OOOiOiNOCaDCO'^OOOlNW 

o_co 00 

co"icTco ■P"ocTco'co''P'co h< io io 

Phila & Reading R 
R Co. 

l^COCOOOrHrHrflOCOI>COCOCO 
OtOOi'OHlOOHHC'ICCH 
L~ 00 rH^C^O aor^r-^c^co Ol 
aro'ioo 6 'oo’'c<r r-T of of of co o' o' 

®CO-!t»! 0 ®COCO^''-"H , COr )<0 
H 05 ® CO LO I- O^OO^r-^-H^C^C^C^ 
•P'uo'lo'lo'io" ■P';d'iO N lg~tO~CD~I> 

Year. 

o--((Nco'#io®i>cca>Q^^ 
1 ^ 1 ^ t>. i> t> t> t*- t> 00 00 co 

ooooooooooaocoooooajcoaooo 

HHHHHHHHHrlHHH 



































Year. 

1825 

1826 

1827 

1828 

1829 

1830 

1831 

1832 

1833 

1834 

1835 

1836 

1837 

1838 

1839 

1840 

1841 

1842 

1843 

1844 

1845 

1846 

1847 

1848 

1849 

1850 

1851 

1852 

1853 

1854 

1855 

1856 

1857 

1858 

1859 

1860 

1861 

1862 


18 

2ST AND HIGHEST PRICES OF ANTHRACITE 

lL, bar iron and scotch pig iron, in the 

V YORK MARKET, FOR FIFTY-SEVEN YEARS.— 
i—1881. 


[From SpofforcVs American Almanac ] 


Anthracite 


Iron 

, Bar. 



Iron. 



Coal. 



Ton. 


Scotch 

Pig. 


L. 

Ton. 

H. 

L. 


H. 

L. 

Ton 

H, 


$8 

00 

$11 

00 

$85 

00 : 

$120 

00 

$35 

00 

$75 

00 

11 

00 

12 

00 

85 

00 

100 

00 

50 

00 

70 

00 

10 

50 

12 

50 

77 

00 

95 

00 

50 

00 

55 

00 

10 

00 

12 

00 

77 

50 

82 

50 

50 

00 

55 

00 

10 

00 

12 

00 

72 

50 

82 

50 

40 

00 

55 

00 

7 

00 

12 

00 

72 

50 

77 

50 

40 

00 

50 

00 

6 

00 

9 

00 

70 

00 

80 

00 

40 

00 

47 

50 

8 

50 

16 

00 

70 

00 

75 

00 

40 

00 

47 

50 

5 

50 

10 

00 

71 

00 

75 

00 

37 

50 

47 

50 

5 

50 

6 

50 

67 

00 

75 

00 

37 

50 

48 

00 

5 

50 

9 

00 

67 

50 

75 

00 

38 

00 

42 

50 

7 

00 

11 

00 

75 

00 

105 

00 

38 

00 

62 

50 

8 

50 

11 

00 

85 

00 

105 

00 

40 

00 

70 

00 

7 

00 

9 

50 

85 

00 

97 

50 

37 

50 

55 

00 

6 

50 

9 

00 

82 

50 

95 

00 

37 

50 

•45 

00 

6 

00 

8 

50 

70 

00 

82 

50 

32 

50 

40 

00 

6 

50 

9 

00 

60 

00 

75 

00 

32 

00 

37 

50 

5 

00 

9 

00 

50 

00 

62 

50 

23 

50 

35 

00 

4 

50 

6 

00 

55 

00 

60 

00 

22 

50 

32 

00 

4 

25 

6 

00 

57 

00 

65 

00 

30 

00 

35 

00 

4 

50 

6 

00 

62 

50 

85 

00 

30 

00 

52 

50 

5 

00 

7 

00 

75 

00 

80 

00 

35 

00 

42 

50 

5 

00 

7 

00 

70 

00 

77 

50 

30 

00 

42 

50 

4 

50 

6 

00 

50 

00 

70 

00 

25 

00 

37 

50 

5 

00 

6 

00 

40 

00 

55 

00 

22 

50 

27 

50 

5 

00 

7 

00 

40 

00 

45 

00 

21 

00 

24 

00 

4 

25 

7 

00 

33 

50 

41 

00 

19 

00 

25 

00 

5 

00 

7 

00 

34 

00 

55 

00 

19 

00 

31 

00 

5 

00 

7 

00 

55 

00 

75 

00 

28 

50 

38 

00 

6 

00 

7 

50 

62 

50 

77 

50 

32 

00 

42 

50 

5 

50 

7 

50 

55 

00 

65 

00 

26 

50 

37 

00 

5 

50 

6 

50 

50 

00 

65 

00 

29 

00 

37 

00 

6 

00 

7 

00 

52 

00 

62 

50 

28 

00 

37 

50 

5 

00 

6 

00 

44 

00 

55 

00 

22 

00 

27 

00 

5 

25 

5 

50 

42 

50 

50 

00 

22 

00 

31 

50 

5 

50 

6 

00 

41 

00 

44 

00 

20 

50 

27 

00 

4 

20 

6 

00 

38 

00 

50 

00 

20 

00 

24 

50 

4 

25 

8 

50 ! 

50 

00 

70 

00 

21 

00 

33 

00 








19 


Y ear. 

L. 

Anthracite 

Coal. 

Ton. H. 

L. 

Iron, Bar. 

Ton. 

H. 

Iron. 

Scotch Pig. 

L. Ton. H. 

1863 

$7 

00 $11 

00 

$65 

00 

$76 

00 

$32 

50 $45 00 

1864 

9 

00 

15 

00 

105 

00 

220 

00 

43 

00 

80 

00 

1865 

8 

50 

13 

50 

100 

00 

130 

00 

40 

00 

55 

00 

1866 

8 

50 

13 

00 

94 

00 

115 

00 

42 

00 

55 

00 

1867 

6 

50 

8 

50 

80 

00 

100 

00 

38 

00 

49 

00 

1868 

6 

50 

11 

50 

80 

00 

95 

00 

35 

00 

45 

75 

1869 

6 

50 

10 

50 

85 

00 

95 

00 

34 

50 

45 

00 

1870 

4 

50 

8 

50 

70 

00 

90 

00 

31 

00 

37 

00 

1871 

5 

00 

13 

00 

70 

00 

95 

00 

30 

00 

39 

00 

1872 

3 

75 

6 

25 

85 

00 

120 

00 

33 

50 

61 

00 

1873 

5 

00 

6 

50 

75 

00 

110 

00 

37 

00 

52 

00 

1874 

4 

55 

5 

55 

55 

00 

80 

00 

33 

00 

45 

00 

1875 

4 

40 

5 

55 

50 

00 

62 

50 

29 

00 

41 

00 

1876 

3 

75 

5 

55 

40 

00 

54 

00 

27 

50 

34 

00 

1877 

3 

25 

3 

75 

44 

80 

48 

72 

25 

00 

28 

00 

1878 

2 

75 

4 

50 

42 

50 

45 

00 

21 

50 

26 

50 

1879 

2 

15 

3 

25 

45 

00 

78 

50 

19 

00 

30 

50 

1880 

3 

50 

4 

45 

46 

00 

76 

00 

20 

00 

40 

00 

1881 

4 

00 

4 

65 

53 

75 

65 

00 

22 

00 

26 

00 















COAL DEALERS’ COMPUTING TABLE FOR ASCERTAINING THE PRICE ON ANY NUM- 


20 


m 

Q 

P 

O 

P4 

O 

o 

o 

<N 

p 

o 

O 

H 

Ph 

p 

p 

p 

o 

l-H 

P 

P 

£ 

p 

> 

I—t 

o 

< 

H 

co 

Q 

P 

O 

P 

P 

o 

p 

p 

m 


e 

•<s> 

<S> 

e 

K) 

*r- 

a* 


N 


5 ^ 

8 

e 

6 

.0 


g 


*o 

<S) 


xn 

fc 

O 

w 

H 

O 

< 

M 

Ph 


mcO^O^t^O^t-rP^CCrHiCCiCO'ICO^OO^NiCaiCOr^O^OOC^ 

04 04 OO ro Pft ~ /-/> /—\ •— /-»v ZZ iO >—*. PC- >—K u /—s 


t" O O t-H t-H rH 

CD 


(Ncococooco&ocot^ocot-ocoi^o^^o^ 

rH r HrH040404COCOCO''t<''-t<THiOiOLOCOCD 

< 55 ?r^Sl 2 ^S^^^ 2 ^“ 2 ' c00c0l ^ > CCOCC iOOOOCOiOCOOCOlOOC 

iflOOHHHCllNC^lNCOOasCOcDOSODDOOliCOC^iOOOC^iCCOH 

^ HHH(NC^C^COCOCO^^t^iOiOlOC 


Iflcoc 

NOO 

CD 

V* 


C5rt?005<Ni0Q0^cc^i0?0</)ClOHC0'^>0r>*Q0C5O^C0-* 

OHHH'NC'lOCC'PCiC'KOXHiOCOH^MDCOPOCOOa 

HHH(NW(MCOCOCO^^^iOiCiOiC 


O CO CO 

0°0 

CD 

«/* 


CP 04 liO CO *-H -H | ^.O O © O O O O C- O O O O O O O O O O O 

OHH-h WWWCO«OOi(MkOCOHT}<p.OCO?Odi(NiOOOH^r* 


H (M C~1 Cl CO CO CO CO ^ lO lO iC 


in co co 

r- OO 
m 
*/► 

oco CO 

in o o 
in 
</* 


C MiO CO O W O O CO 10 ^ CO (N O 05 CD 10 »C CO Cl O OJ CO 
OHHHOllNtNMiOCCH^t^OCOiOOO^-fNOCOOCOH^ 

t-Ht-Ht-HOIOIOIOICOCOCO^^^'^iOI-C 


on rH -h* u>* op 0110 cc m eg © co »o co © 00 >c co © op * 


OHHHHCJM^iO 


. . COOCOiOW 

HWOOiWrfNOCOlOOOH^tOOC^ 


in co co 

(M o O 

in 

*/* 


HHHHC^WOlCOCOCOCOr^^^^iC 

CO H CO CO D H -f l'* CO 01 »0 ^ 00 ^ O 1^ W Cl lO <N 00 ^ O h» W Cf5 
OHHHHJN'NOJiOI^OCOLOCOHCCCOXH^CODOl'tl^D 

HHHHOKNOUNCOCOCOCO^tH^^ 


o 00 ©_... _ „„ w ^ ^ 

QOOOHHHH(N(N(NiOMO<NLC^O(NiObO(NiO^ 


op O CO lO 00 O W lO o »0 O g O ICO © »j0 © 1-0 © »D © lO 


lO o »c 
04 uo t- 


m 

i 4 


HHHH(N(N(N^COCOCOCO^^^^ 


in co 10 

r^o o 


t^OCliOI^CiO^' /, 'OJ»^CiCOt^DrtccOODOaiCOr^O^OOOI 

OHHHHHCICl^^aiH^COCiHCOcOCOOCOiOOOOCDC 

HHH^(NOJ(NdCOCOCCCOTj<Tf^ 


OCO ICO 

in o o 


I^O'N^OXOCOiOCOOCOiOOOOCOiOOOOCOiOCCOCOiOOC 

OOHHHH^C^^COOJHCOiOCOOOl^^aJHCOCOOOOOJ 

HHHH(NCUNW(NCOCOCOCO^^ 


inojicoN 

NOOO 


cp -j co »n o 01 co -h id i>» oo © o 04 co ico co op o 01 co -* 

OHHHHHlN^COCOO(NTt<l>a)HCOi0^aPHrJ<COCOC 

HHHHHOIOIC'IC'IOICOCOCOCO^ 


OClrfCO 

OOOO 

** 


COONrfOCOOOO 

OHHHHHM^O 


oo°o S ooooo 


O 04 'T* CO 


04 ^ CO 00 


• o o o 

! C 4 ^C 


HHHHH(N04C4 ( N<NCOCOCOCOCC 


in 01 

o 

CO 


OOCPrHCOiCt^CPCOOiC^CO^ 

OOHHHHHCOiOI>CbHCO 


CP CO <D lO ^ CO r-H 
CD CC © 04 Tf* CO CC 


CP 




*H H H H rH 04 C4 04 04 04 CO CO CO CO 


OCI^iO 

m o o o 

CO 

V* 


rH 04 ^ CO CO 


COiOCOOCOiOCOOCOiCCOOQOiCCOOCOiDCO 

t-HCOiOI>GO©04'^iOI^CPt-HC4^COCCCPt-HCO 

rHT-HrHT-HT-Hi-HO4C4 04 04 04 01C0CC 


in 04 co uo _ __ _ ___ 

D4OOOOOf-»-lT-HrHrHC0T^c6j0 0^rHC0^C0l>OrH04 


NCOOHCOiO«OCOCPiOHCO’^C^OCOaPiOHOOTfO«DCOC 

^ CO I> CP o 


CO 

*/► 


04 04 04 04 04 04-CO 


04 


o 04 CO lO 

0 000 

CO 


O 00 O H Cl H 1-0 O lO O 1.0 O lO O lO O lO O 1.0 O IQ O 1.0 O lO 
OOOhhHHCOtj<C1>CpOC4COiOCCiOOHC4^iO>X 


H H H H H 04 04 04 04 04 04 


inHCO^O^COOHOJ-fOOHiOCPCO^O’fCOHiOCPCOcpO^t'COH 
r^OOOOOOHHHH04^iOCXOH04COiOCl^00 04CO^C 

t-H t-H rH t-H t-H t-H rH 04 04 04 04 04 


oooooooooo 

rH 04 CO Tf iO CD CO © O 


01 


°°8go 


© © © © © © 
tjiiOOt^CCCi 


88 $ 

rH 04 CO 


llil 


































21 


RATING OF COLLIERIES SHIPPING BY PHILADEL¬ 
PHIA & READING RAILROAD. 


East Mahanoy , Mahanoy ancl Shamokin , and Mine Hill , 
North District. J. H. OLHA USEN , Swpf. 


Name of Colliery. 

Name of Operator. 

Date of 
Last 
Rating 

Rated 

Capacity 

Per Day 

in Cars. 

North Star. 

(Reynolds, Roberts & Co. 

11. 4, 80 

38 

Schuylkill. 

P. & R. C.' & I. ( o. 

4, 26, 81 

86 

North Mahanoy. 

a a 

4, 3o; 78 

113 

Mahanoy City. 

a a 

3', 7\ 78 

110 

Tunnel Ridge. 

it it 

4; 28; 81 

91 

St. Nicholas. 

it tt 

12', 9; 79 

111 

Coal Run. 

Suffolk Coal Co. 

9, 21, 80 

140 

Ellangovvan. 

P. & R. C. & I. Co. 

3', 3', 80 

240 

Knickerbocker. 

it it 

11, 8, 79 

156 

Bear Run. 

It it 

4, 9, 80 

104 

Boston Run. 

it it 

4, 9, 80 

102 

Draper. 


6, 30, 81 

125 

Gilberton. 

P. & R. C. & I. Co. 

4, 27', 81 

82 

Lawrence. 

Lawrence, Merkel & Co. 

4, 20; 80 

141 

West Bear Ridge. 

Mye’S, McCreary & Co. 

4; 19; 80 

113 

Colorado. 

Phila. Coal Co . 

10; 17; 78 

150 

Shenandoah . 

it it 

10; 18', 78 

144 

William Penn . 

Wm. Penn Coal Co . 

3; 16; 80 

210 

Turkey Run . 

P. & R. C. & I. Co . 

4; 7', 80 

122 

West Shenandoah. 

it tt 

4,' 15; 80 

130 

Kohinoor . 

R. Heckscher & Co . 

9', 15; 80 

200 

Shenandoah City. 

P, & R. C. & I. Co . 

9; 24; 79 

64 

Plank Ridge . 

ti tt 

5', 18'. 80 

125 

Kehley Run . 

Thomas Coal Co . 

lb 4, 78 

190 

Conner . 

P. & R. C. & I. Co . 

5; 12, 80 

140 

Gira.rd Mammoth 

it tt 

11, 25, 79 

55 

Cnyler . 

S. M. Heaton & Co . 

3, 4, 80 

190 

Preston, No. 2 . 

P. & R. C. & I. Co . 

10; 23; 78 

120 

C< mtinental . 

Lehigh Valley Coal Co . 

10, 21, 78 

137 

Ce.ntra.lia . 


11, 11, 78 

121 

Haze' Dell 

Sykes & Jones. 

11, 1, 78 

28 

North Ashland 

P. & R. C. & I. Co. 

5, 26, 80 

135 

Ba,st 

tt tt 

3; 14, 79 

150 

Big Mi ne Run 

J. Taylor & Co. 

1, 21, 80 

160 

Tunnel . 

P. & R. C. & I. Co. 

2; 14; 81 

16 

Gi ra.rd 

tt it 

5, 26, 76 

120 

Preston No 3 

ti it 

6, 3; 80 

126 

Reliance. 

a tt 

6, 7, 80 

126 

Mt. Carmel. 

Montelius, Robertson & Co 

li 24; 81 

136 

Monitor. 

Geo. W. Johns & Bro. 

11, 11, 79 

144 

Merria.m 

P. & R. C. & I. Co. 

1, 5, 80 

125 

Potts 

it tt 

4; 9; 78 

140 

Keystone 

ti it 

2, 1, 81 

25 

y.nenst Spring 

it a 

5, 17, 80 

132 

Ben Franklin. 

Douty & Baumgardner. 

5, 10, 78 

92 
































































































22 


Name of Colliery. 


Enterprise. 

Excelsior. 

Greenback. 

Buck Ridge. 

Big Mountain. 

Bear Valley. 

Burnside. 

North Franklin, No. 

Geotge Fales. 

Stanton... 

Indian Ridge. 

Elmwood. 

Staffordshire. 

East Bear Ridge. 

Hammond. 

Locust Gap. 

N. Franklin, No. 2. 

Mt. Carmel Shaft. 

Webster. 

Oakdale. 

Cambridge. 

Stirling.. 

rranklin.. 

Henry Clay, No 1. 

Carson. 

Peerless.. 

Laurel Ridge. 

Hillside . 

Beech wood.. 

Wadesville. 

Monitor. 

Eagle. 

St. Clair. 

Eagle Hill. 

Coal Hill. 

Palmer Vein. 

Pottsville. 

Pine Dale. 

We^t Lehigh. 

East Lehigh. 


Name of Operator. 


Enterprise Coal Co. 

Excelsior Coal M’g Co. 

H. J. Toudy. 

May, Audenried & Co. 

Patterson, Llewellyn & Co. 
P. R.C. & I. Co. 

it it 

a a 

n a 

Miller, Hoch & Co. 

P. & R. C. & I. Co. 

it tt 

Jones, Ward & Co. 

Myers, McPreary & Co. 

P. & R. C & I. Co. 

Graeber& Shepp. 

P. & R. C. & I. Co. 

it it 

L. S Baldwin. 

E. L Powell. 

Cam hr dge Coal Co. 

Kendrick & Co. 

s. S. Bickel. 

J. Langdon & Co. 

P. Goodwill. 

Cruikshank & Ernes. 

John A. Gutter. 

Smith, Williams & Co. 

P. & R. C. & I Co. 

tt tt 

John Denning. 

Geo. W. Johns & Bro. 

Jos. Atkinson & Co. 

P. & R. C. & I. Co. 

R. Holahan & Bro. 

Alliance Coal Mining Co... 

P. & R. C. & I. Co. 

Louis Lorenz. 

Wood & Pearce. 

Mitchel & *ymen. 


Date of 
Last 
Rating. 

Kated 

Capacity 

Per Day 

in Cars. 

2, 

10, 

81 

157 

11, 

2, 

76 

no 

8, 

16, 

80 

57 

11, 

16, 

78 

114 

5, 

10, 

80 

166 

10, 

24, 

78 

155 

5, 

8, 

77 

81 

4, 

3, 

77 

57 

11, 

26, 

79 

52 

4, 

2 

80 

116 

5. 

1', 

80 

180 

f>, 

7, 

78 

82 

1, 

20, 

80 

20 

4, 

o 

80 

100 

0, 

12, 

80 

100 

5. 

19, 

78 

14 > 

5. 

25, 

80 

112 

4, 

13, 

80 

200 

10, 

13, 

80 

35 

6, 

8, 

81 

24 

10, 

8, 

77 

7 

11, 

26, 

70 

117 

1, 

5, 

81 

60 

11, 

8, 

78 

152 

10, 

24. 

78 

25 

9, 

16, 

78 

74 

4, 

1, 

80 

30 

1. 

25, 

81 

22 

11, 

18, 

79 

90 

1', 

19, 

79 

177 

10, 

12, 

77 

13 

4, 

24, 

78 

74 

10, 

28, 

78 

7 

12, 

10, 

79 

102 

o, 

20, 

78 

9 

o, 

1, 

76 

61 

12, 

18, 

79 

96 

2, 

1, 

81 

30 

8, 

22, 

78 

26 

8, 

5, 

78 

8 


Total...! 8729 


The facts considered in rating collieries are : 

First —The number of mine cars that can be produced 
daily and their capacity in tons. 

Second .—The capacity of the engines to hoist the coal 
produced. 

Third .—The capacity of the breaker to prepare the coal. 
























































































MINE HILL, SOUTH DISTRICT. 

A. Hesser , Superintendent. 


Name of Colliery. 


Name of Operator. 



Mine Hill Gap. 

Richardson. 

Glendower. 

Phoenix Park, No. 2. 

Forestville. 

Otto. 

Swatara. 

Middle Creek Shaft. 

East Franklin. 

Thomaston. 

Ellsworth. 

Wolf Creek Big Diamond.. 

Black Heath. 

Black Mine. 

W’olf Creek Big Diamond. . 

Phoenix Park, No. 3. 

Wolf Creek. 

Dundas, No 7. 


P. & R. C. & I. Co 


u u 
ll u 
u u 
u u 
« u 
« u 
a u 
u u 
a u 


John R. Davis. 

E. Thomas. 

Wm. H. Harris. 

H. A. Moodie & Co. 

James Donahoe. 

P. & R. C. & I. Co. 

Edward Hoskins. 

Davis & Co. 


UP. 


106 

128 

85- 

72 

70 

100 

69 

100 

65 

125 

25 

34 
45 

35 
20 
92 

8 

3 


Total, 


1182 


SCHUYLKILL AND SUSQUEHANNA, AND LEBANON 
AND TREMONT BRANCHES. 

H. W. Tracy , Superintendent. 


Name of Colliery. 

Name of Opeiator. 

Rated 
Capacity 
Per Day 
in Cars.l 

Brookside. 

P. & R. C. & I. Co. 

450 

Colket. 

U u 

102 

Rausch Creek. 

Miller, Graeff & Co... 

140 

Lincoln . 

Levi Miller & Co. 

200 

Kalmia. 

Phillips & Sheaffer. 

200 


Total. 

1092 
































































Summary of PERSONS EMPLOYED, TONS of COAL MINED, POWDER USED, &c., in and about the Coal Mines of Pennsylvania, for the year 1881. 


No. of Horses and 
Mules. 

w* 9i Oi © 

-+ f-* ^ CO 

00 ’^.00'^ 
i—< CS 


ex oo co oo 

CO ‘O h— CO 
© © lO © 

pH r-H 




Tons of Coal 
mined per keg of 
Powder Used. 

»o oo »o 

00 ’M -*f< CC 

cb c* o oo (d 

O in oi «o 

cOn 




« 

— 

No of Kegs of 
Powder Used. 

COHOOO^f- 
05 d N O l - < 

co hT ce 

CO 05 00 03 oo 

r-4 

-+— -T-+ 





Average No. of 
days worked. 

Ol lO »- ^ Ol ft 

O r- H M eo rH 

M C3 ^4 M M C3 

1- 

PH 

cs 

CM pH 00 ft 
l'- CO © ft 
pH CM pH CM 

M 

ft 

PH 

CM 

ifO 

© 

Tons of Coal 
mined to each 
Employe. 

O r-« ^ t- 

f-« O I- co 00 

H C4 « 1- 03 « 

OC H 1- H C iO 

03 CO -t' -t -t 

b* 

Xi 

co 

552-31 

512*35 

580-4 

501-67 

© 

ex 

ex 

co 

»« 

CM 

© 

© 

ft 

N 

yp 

© 

No. of tons of 
Coal Produced in¬ 
cluding that sold 
and consumed at 
mines. 

iO CO O 00 O 00 
«3MCO«C'+ 

CG CO CC »0 CX C5_ 
03> -t 1 04 f—< »-H 

M O CO M H CO 

CO »T3-^O 

r-T mjT t*T t-T jc-T uo 

30,537,994 

8,272,605 

6,583,200 

4,202,000 

2,908,219 

s 

2- 

§ 

© 

pH 

CM 

2 

°- 

ft 

© 

»o 

of 

U0 

© 

pH 

CO 

»o 

© 

© 

pH 

No. of Employees. 

Total. 

I-HIOCOOO 
OHNOf O 

•^0^00 00 00 »M 

CD O pH ex' 00 pH 

HHHrtH j 

pH 

CO 

© j 

ex'" ! 
- 

00 © © t- 
i- ft ft © 

© 00 CM_b^ 

ft C'f t-^iO ! 

PHrH | 

ft 

- 

116,895 

© 

co 

r~i 

i 

Outside. | 

1—1 -H< lO ■H' X3 C0 1 
Ci Pi 00 ft ex pH | 
^x^oo oo »n j 

of ^ hJi*' to ex h#T 

$ 

:-i 

CM I 

OC © CO CM 
iO CO CO X 1 

CM CM 00 pp 

CO CM - r-T ! 

1 

§ 

iO 

S { 
© 

co 1 


Inside. 

Ci-O-tHN 

O pH ^ ex 1- 00 

O X^X^Ci W CO 

uo ex' o' of cx 

pH r-H 

146,535 

© © t- XO I 
CM pH C pH 1 

t^exftex j 

r-H © © ft~ 1 
pH ph | 

© 

© 

s i 

© | 
8 1 

2 i 


No. of collieries 
in operation. 

ft ex O ph 03 ex I 

>o ft O iO CO 1(0 
* 

© 

CO 

CO 

pH © CX pH 1 
© CM © © I 
pH pH 

© 

ICO 

ft 

b— 

© 

t— 

© 

i.O 


o 
.2 
2 

a f 

O *2 
^ ^ 

. 

3 fl) OlH 

a.g a 

c« © c3 _J 
CC C Ph 


C3 

•H 

-w ^ 

2r 'g 

<S5 £ ,2 
® P3 
ft rq . 

o M 

-a 

a 
ft 


z > 

p a 

© Q 

h3 . 

03 ft 

§ A 
C x3 
«2 c 
ft ft 


8* 
e s 

o tc 
■P o 
H PS 


„ +n 
° 
CO .pH 
V .*n L. 

Tq v 
43 w oj 

•225 

Q o . 

« >-a 

S x: ft « 
5 © aCC 

V GC © — 
. £■> “ 

ctf ft © .b 
E t* GG X3 


r- t-. H 


13 03 © 

CCS 

t- u. to 

O 03 o 
N N N 

P P P 
►-JhP J 
ft 'g 
p S a 

rt c5 

£3 P _ 
SOP 

1st 

^£5 


~ o 
O .P ■ 

^ C3 

oToP 

fsi 

■« § a 

♦n 13 f3 

OXX 

PnOJCfiS WGG 


® «- - 
3 o-C 
ft hj 
■O W 3 

Ci o 


« 


ft-* 

- © +T © 
♦a *r o t 
. x ■*-> r w 

.2 « 5 b 

ft 

9T?r 


; 24 ] 


OO’O 

xs jp S «p 

03 Eh 
X3 ft ^ 

- °s • 

-p *- 9 

l* In 03 I* 

x §5 S 

ti Jaox) ^ 

3.2 3-0 

.Txs a 

m ,r?E* S3 
§*»& 

3§ .gj 
3b1>§ 

|^l 

oMfeS'S 

G ® 2 © S 

o ft p S P 

p 

Vn «3 ~ C3 

ft o> g > 
X C3 •<-» 

- P ©ft 

•2c g “tn 

•P O « ~ 
O ft C3 •- 03 

^ a 0) p 

© ft S © *? 

t||g(2 

© 03 ^ f£ tO 
03 


ft 

•-N 

ft 

t** 

a 

a 

o 

o 

2 

a 


a 

o 

CO 

ft ft 
es a 

ft ft 

f" 

2 § 


C *N 


03 


c3 *- 

03 


ce s 

^ u o ^ a 

2 g 2 § ^ 

to^ft £ft 

C w - 03 
ft 03 t- fa ft 

2?’C ? ® o 

03 rt *2. 
>-,—■ 03 - tifl 

^ftftt? A 

3 ft 

o G_■_, 

° O Pfeft 
. 03 o W 
ft ^ ft - ~ 
8^2.2 p 

X3 03 S^3 
tcus ^ * fl 

3 

°w oT 


03 -M 
. Jn g 

too P 


13 ^ 

O 

- g r 

ft ?? _ 

SSii 

03 O 73 

.§ Q ft 

■p 0) *J 

25 p 
.S’S * 

^ g ® 

5 ^ 

-&ft 

*2 § a 

-m ft o 

t~ a o 

ft I 2 
o 

a o a 
►-ft 

p cj o 

^>N a 

g 2 o) 

$ 03 <— 

ft-E W 

<n 03' 

^N ft T3 © 

r 9 oJ a o 
3 p G co 


P ° ft 
o ft 

*P 03 

c^a 


r0 <P 
P Pf 
K ce 
m P 


V- p ., w 
w ft 03 ^ «j 

^ tJDft 5 P 

*N a Gft ® 

es ft a ft O 
p<5 oi* , „ - 

c3X3ft o 2 a 

•G r - ^ 03 »-—• c3 ^ 
^ ft 03 53 03 

os ft 2 p m »-. oT g "3 
03Gftftc3aS«-.52 
«cjp£Oo^c3^a 

S*-S«S^5"a 

iSaSHilsi 

■' —-«pg« 

o 

—N ,03 

Eh JU; p 
° c3 


03 ^ <3J Q ft UTO ^ ft 
03 > w ft d3 
« 9 •? .cSpXo 


.2 -? 
»N 


" Pft 55 
^ ^ o ft x; 


° -ft- 

?? 


V3 C3 P * 

ft P g P — wj ^ • - 

® g*5)5i5 ®.2 a 55 ® 

Sft.2 ft-Ej fe . 

o^x: p«*n 03ft g 


^ C 03 
“ G, 03 

p* ft 
° o E— i o ® 


4) 

-s? 


•2 oT g 1 C ° £'O O - « 

Sr o 2 s^o §5 

P 03^H P •'“• »P 03 — •t-i "H* 

Z C3 *4 » A S3 ft *- 

s?ftogfl)^o r a 

p^N § 2ft° = 
w .any j— PfifiP 

^ftce-/3 03 w, P’2G 

££^•-•52 * 3 § a 

o“rtflHo).7i-rf 

^^Gow?ftax:x: . 
| 5 *-S„ N '»U 4 5Ca 4 n-H > d3 
L 0 5gft-H'0®'H > w2 
a « 5 £ ® p p-ft fe 9 

ft 03 S rtl ^ O „ 03 


03 


EH'P 1- ’ 03 »P >- 03 03 P*ft 

r^ft < -ro3t , r rx:x3 ®x: 2 

>T Gft C5 3 lr P^f tHl—» 

O ft ” O * -«--M--guc*— 
C3 O ft G 






















































































88 

rH 


03 

<D 

>* 

<D 

ft 


S-t 

a 


o3 

• fH 

c3 

> 

r-H 

cw 

C 

P 

O 

ft 

<*-« 

o 

(75 

o 

P 

•«—i 

s 

*3 

o 

o 

o> 

ft 


P 

O 

ft 

c3 

'd 

a 

c3 

p 

•rH 

CO 

ft 

£ 

ft 

ft 

►—i 

O 

o 

ft 

◄ 

ft 

ft 

i 

£ 

O 

£ 

ft 

£ 

< 

ft 

◄ 

ft 

◄ 

ft 

4h 

o 

£ 

03 

a 

a 

p 

CO 


No. Employes to 
each Casualty. 

CM _ 01 

tp 0> ip CO CM 

Oi 6 N Ol CJ 
CO iO <D <D 04 GO 

rH 

rH 

rH 

ip Tfi CO 

r- oo r- ft 

04l- iO CO 
CMHHH 

ft 

rH 

122-75 


No. of Tons Mined 

per Casualty. 

9,579 35 

24,615-43 

22,731-28 

28,198-82 

50,075-71 

37,31813 

28,753-12 

125,342-5 

91,433-33 

91,348- 

67,633* 

93,939-21 

61,346.16 

L 

o 

rH 

CVV> 

Tons of Coal Mined 
per Fatal Accident. 

101,647 

132,488 

92,346 

88,879 

164,078 

107,190 

GO 

CO 

TJ^ 

ft' 

rH 

rH 

4H- 

359,678 

387,247 

500,000 

415,690 

CD 

lO 

CD 

lO 

rH 

HH- 

||265,046 

CD 

c. 

CO 

ft 

GO 

-4— 

Total Ac¬ 
cidents. 

1 

| Non-Fatal. 

co as o co 

TJH Tf o GO 

rH rH rH rH rH 

s 

GO 

CO LO GO CD 
tji lC CO CO 

172 

l,006 i 

CO 

rH 

CAM 

Fatal. 

GO rH 00 05 I> 1 CO 

H CO H l' H H , 1>* 

1 CM 

CO CO 

04 rH 

LO 

10 

328; 

co 

lAM 

Miscellane¬ 

ous. 

m , j ri CO iO CO OJ CO 

Total. 1 (MHiOiOCIH 

GO 

GO 

rH 

HiODCO 1 rH 

rH rH j H' 

229 


I CO CO tc ^ GO (M 

Non-Fatal. | hh^cohh 

140 

th 05 co 

rH 

CO 

CO 

173 


Fatal. | cocoo^-^^ 

ss 

: CD CM O CO | CD 


Mine Cars ' 

& Mach’y 

Total. 

COl^HH^O 

Tf iD lO tH lO 

291 

05 04 CO tH 

rH rH rH 

00 

339 


Non-Fatal. 

CD i> *— CO lO 

CO tH CO tH CO CO 

CD 

CM 

CM 

O 04 CO 

rH rH rH 

CM 

268 


Fatal. 

!>■ O O O CO id 
hhhhh 

ig 

CM 04 rH rH | CD | rH 


Explosions ] 

>f Powder. 

Total. 

CXC0(NH<£- 

r-< rH CO rH 

8 j 

04 : : rH | co l co 

: : 1 1°° 

05 

rH 

CAM 

Non-Fatal. 

o CD O ifO GO lO 

rH HCI 

S) 

CM : : rH | CO 

CD 

CM 

rH 

CAM 

Fatal . j ooKot'MH |o j : : : : | 1 ' i 

CD 

rH 1 «.^M 

Explosions 1 

of Gas. c 

- -i CO CO CO rH rH ] 

Total. | ^HC^CCHH ! 

148 

coco : : 

: *• 

rH 

tH 

05 1 r-t 

LO 1 lO 
rH I CAM 

Non-Fata 

H lO t*i Tt» CD rH I 

Tji rH CM 04 rH 

rH 

CM 

1—4. 

CMOO S S | 
: : 

o 

rH 

rH | 00 

CO 1 c*. 

rH 1 CAM 

Fatal. 

ClCOr^OiOCO 
* rH 

27 

1 

1 

28 

CO 

rH 

CAM 

Falls. 

Total. 

H-HCC H HD 

1- 00 tO l> CD tji | 

o i COl^^iO 1 
O j CO CO CM CM | 

Tt< 1 

3 1 

524 

CO 

Tr 

CAM 

Non-Fatal. 

CO GO t'* CO (N iO 

CD CD CO rf Tf 04 

CO | O0 00 05 05 

CO i H Cl H H 

04 1 

H 1 I- 1 ^ 

CO i CD i rH 

1 CO 1 w 

Fatal. 

CDOHOO>H 1 

rH 04 CM 04 CM j 

I> 1 O 05 ID CD 

rH CM 

rH 1 

O 1 1' 1 H 

TJI 1 iO 1 CO 

1 rH 1 CAM 


CO 

ft 

Q 


ft 

ft 

co 


ft 


* <P o o 

? ~P F 1 S 

< H- JH fH *H 

> O 0> <1> Q 
}-r-i N N N 

£ p p p 

‘.gift ft ft 
? ft § § P 

I 0^2 O 

I CO'S-Spy 

) rr"? 03 ® P 

1 -5^5 

’ »rH C*», M*' 

'r 5 o ° t *- 1 

: h -2s° 

^ +j 

-o-E££ 

q «-SB 

oSs fi 

ags3 

as *0 oq £ 
ft ft O 
oqSWco 


o 

H-> 
• rH 

o 

03 

*H 

ft 

P 

r—H 

03 

■M 

O 

ft 



f 


GO 



P 



o 






M 



P 

P 


H 

o 


HH 

W 

»-( 

•rH 



a 

"5 


p 




o 

r O 

•rH 

ft 

ft 



'O 

■u ^ u H 

•rH Qj »H O 

ai 
-*— > 

O 

p 

c3 

t-i 

ft JJ ft ft 

ft 

O 



*T\vo of these were suffocated. fThis is the average decrease in tons mined per life lost for the whole State. 
JAverage. ||G rand Average. ^Increase. 


































































































































Caking. ..[Steubenville, Ohio 


26 


■d- 


P 

n 


tdWO 

o o 
ooC. 

on? 


W 

H 

H 

OOtdOQg 

S&?&sg 

Sd^3: O 
£-73 : cfq : 3 
cn 


doatdogo.- 

:$§-2. 3 Bgg2 

>Ooo‘&B2 


to > 

„ CD w 

"B H 

rWK^s 
W^g^w 

g !**dw2 
=B 

M»P hJ-Hj W 

&S.’ 

CD 0 

cc 

SP 


<! 

> 

H-< 

W 

H 

►3 


otdgtrt 

gf 3 £oq 

9||l 

i-l?S 

S&- •< 

2$ So 

Sg'i’l 

p ? o- 

P KH 

•C: S’ 

O 

■—■• 




g-3 M P 

S* ig 

Q* P m t—* eo 

t; gS ssp 

gbSijo^'B. 

P p p H.p-QO 

5 B.o S- 3 

t>rp v ~ 


«< 


O HjJ 

JO 


CtB 

2 3 

» H 

; rt> 

*0 

P 


2*8 

gB 

H2o- 

CD 

£2- 
O p 

- P 

33 P* 

P ? 

P 


tT 1 

O 

o 

> 

t-* 

h-< 

Hj 

Kj 


05 4^- tO 4-*- 05 

O' 00 


. °? ° 

CO tO O' 00 ^l CO X 4 
OOOOCnOH 


05 O' 4^ cn 
4- tO r- 05 


vl 05 O' 
M h-» CO 

to o> 
O' Cn Qo 


<1 <1 00 CO 00 

WOO 

to cr- c£> ^ C5 

00 Cn I — 4 CO On 


P ^ 

HJ »->• 

crx 

O CD 

3 P- 







X 4 

M- 4 

> 

Mexico 

MIOGOWMMOiM 

CO <1 H- 4 h- 4 O' 

w 

00 0 CO ^-1 
OOCJO 

•*4 CO 4^ O 00 4^ 00 h- 4 
O'CiHOOO'OcO 

to O' to CO CO 

O' O O' 05 4^ 

p - 









GG 

d 
►—* 






0 co: 0 0 m to 

O • OOO 






Cn CO • O' Cn 0 O 
CO CO : CO 05 4- 4* 

>*i: 00 co 
co: co to to 

P - 







• 

d 







• 

• 



C0C0O54*C04>>C0C04^C0C0C0 

OOtOOMOr-CJiOOHO 


CO 4^ to cn 
O O O O' o o 


4 ^ O 05 00 4^ 
OOHOOWHIO 


to h- 4 

MvlWOW 
CO O' 05 O*' 4»* 

Oi ’J\ CO O 


CD 


* 0 , 

o <3 

tdcr p 
&g£ 

S' S'. CD 


M- 4 

HMMtOOMOCO 

tOtOHuu, 

O O h- 4 h- 4 h- 4 

3 

S 

(*S 

4 ^ O 4^ O Cn O CO 00 
O O ^ O' 0 0 00 to 

O' 4^ CO CO 
05^10 05 

05 CO O' co to 
MO O' CO 

•-< 

CD 

Ul 



c-t- 

1 


00 

05 


oog 

*-»5^ <3 

O CD CD O 
p 3 
r^n- 3 

^ W 

►“‘P 

3"?S 


ANALYTICAL TABLE OF AMERICAN COALS. 












































































Vertical Section in the Southern Anthracite 



Coal Fields of Pennsylvania. 

Sandrock. 

Gate. 

Little Tracy. 

Tracy. 

Diamond. 


Little Orchard. 
Orchard. 

Primrose. 

Holmes. 

Seven Feet. 
Mammoth. 

Skidmore. 

Buck Mountain. 

Lykens Valley upper. 
Lykens Valley, lower. 


[ 27 ] 

































































Vertical Section Anthracite Coal Measures Nanticoke Basin 


Red Ash coal, 4 ft. G in. 



Pink Ash Coal, 4 ft. 4 in. 

Grey Ash Coal, G ft. 6 in. 
White Ash Coal. 7 ft. 2 in. 

<■ « “4 ft. 3 in. 

“ “ “ 5 ft. 9 in. 




12 ft. 


“ “ “ 4 ft. 8 in. 


Red Ash Coal, 7 ft. 0 in. 
•< “ “ 5 7t. 6 in. 



Total Coal, 61 ft. 8 in. 


Tracy. 


Diamond. 


Orchard. 

Hillman or Primrose. 


Cooper ^Baltimore, or 
Bennet 


Twin,Top Bench) Skid- 
Twin, Bottom “ ) more. 


Ross. 


Buck Mountain. 
Red Ash, Bench. 


[28 J 
















Vertical Section at Crystal Ridge Colliery, Near Hazleton, Pa. 

muni i MIliU 


Mammoth Seam, 33 ft. 


Wharton Seam, 8]4 ft. 


Buck Mt. Seam, 8 ft. 



Dist. from Surface, 75 ft. 


Dist. from Surface, 234 ft. 


m 


Dist. from Surface, 826 ft. 


m 


Total Coal, 49 ft. 6 in. 


■Mr 


ii: : ; 


Total Depth, 640 ft. 7 in. 




















Vertical Section taken atlConnellsville Coke and Iron Co.’s Shaft, No. 1, Leis- 
enring, Dunbar Township, Fayette County, Pa. 

Surface. 



Dist. from Surface, 30 ft. 


Dist. from Surface, 197 ft. 

Dist. from Surface, 230 ft. 
Dist. from Surface, 24G ft. 

Dist. from Surface, 290 ft. 


Dist. from Surface, 

34 ft. 8 in. 

Dist. from Surface, 

371 ft. 11 in. 


130] 






































31 


ARITHMETICAL SIGNS USED IN THE POCKET 

BOOK. 


-{- signifies plus, or addition. 

minus, or subtraction. 
X “ multiplication. 

-v- “ division. 

:: : “ proportion. 

= “ equality. 

\/ “ square root. 

f' “ cube root, &c. 


Thus, 

5 + 3, denotes that 3 is to be added to 5. 

6 — 2, denotes that 2 is to be taken from 6. 

7X3, denotes that 7 is to be multiplied by 3. 

8-5-4, denotes that 8 is to be divided by 4. 

2 : 3 :: 4 : 6, shows that 2 is to 3 as 4 is to 6. 

6 + 4 = 10, shows that the sum of 6 and 4 is equal to 10. 
j/3, denotes the square root of the number 3. 

5, denotes the cube root of the number 5. 

7 2 , denotes that the number 7 is to be squared. 

8 3 , denotes that the number 8 is to be cubed. 
-The Bar denotes that the numbers or quan¬ 
tities are to be taken together : thus 


6 — 2 + 8 = 12, or 5 X 6 + 1 = 35. 

The same may be expressed by the ( ) Parentheses ; as 
(2 + 6) X 4 = 32. 

A Decimal Point is a period (*) prefixed to a number to 
show that the number is less than unity (1) ; thus *2 = 
A ; -36 = Tflfr ; 5-75 = 5/A or ; 1-26 = or ljf ; 
*00375 — ro 8 dVo"0» ^ c ' 

Degrees are expressed by writing ° over them, as 24° for 
24 degrees. 

Minutes are marked by an accent ( / ). 

Seconds thus ( // ), &c. Thus 30° 40' 4 // is read 30 de¬ 
grees, 40 minutes and 4 seconds. 






32 


ALGEBRAIC CHARACTERS. 

Algebra is a method of investigating quantity by means 
of general characters called symbols. In addition to the 
arithmetical signs already given, the different letters of 
the alphabet are used to represent different quantities. 

To illustrate algebraic symbols let l denote the length, 
b the breadth and h the heighth of a mine car. If it be 
desired to divide the heighth into the product of the 
length and breadth, it is expressed as follows : 

lb 

h 

When two or more letters are placed together without 
anything between them, it is understood that the quanti¬ 
ties represented by those letters should be multiplied to¬ 
gether. If l represents 8 and b 4, then 4 and 8 are multi¬ 
plied together, thus : 4 X 8 = 32. 

If it be desired to divide the heighth into the sum of the 
length and breadth, it is thus expressed : 

l + b 


h 

The square of the length multiplied by the cube of the 
breadth, thus : 

l 2 bf 

The square root of the length divided by the cube root 
of the breadth, thus : 

V 1 


fb 

The square root of the difference of the length and 
breadth divided by the heighth, thus : 

l/ l — b 

h 

The square root of the quotient of the sum and differ¬ 
ence of the length and breadth, thus : 


l + b 









33 


TERMS USED IN TRIGONOMETRY. 



F. E. or I. C.— sine of angle 
F. C. E. 

F. I. or C. E.= Cosine. 

D. G.—Tangent. 

A. H. —Co-tangent. 

E. D. Versed line. 

A. I.=Coversine. 

C. D.=rRadras. 


A. K.=Ohord. 

A. M. K.~Arc. 

A. B.=Diameter. 

Segment is the space includ¬ 
ed between the chord A. 
K. and the arc A. M. K. 
Sector is the space included 
between the radii C. B. and 
C.K. and the arc, B. K. 


TRIGONOMETRICAL EQUIVALENTS 


'l/ (1—sin 2 )=cos 

Sin.-i-Tan. —Cos. 

Sin.XCot.=Cos. 

Sin.-^-Cos.—Tan. 

Cos.-=-Sin.=Cot. 

Cos.-r-Cot.=Sin. 

Tan.-^Sin.=Sec. 

Tan.-^Sec.=Sin. 

Tan.XCot.~Rad. 


j/(l—Cos 2 )=Sin. 

1-^ Cot.—Tan. 

l-r-Sin.=Cosec. 

l-^Cos.=Sec. 

l-r-Cosec.=Sin. 

l-r-Sec.=Cos. 

l-*-Tan,=Cot. 

1—Cos.=V ersin. 

1—Sin.=Coversin. 














84 


Natukal Sines, &c. 


Deg. 

Sine. 

Cover. 

Cosec. 

Tan. 

Co tan. 

Secant 

Vrsn. 

Cosin. 


0 

•oo 

1-00000 

infinite 

•o 

infinite 

1-00000 

•o 

1-00000 

90 

1 

'01745 

•98255 

57-2987 

•01746 

57-2900 

1 00015 

00015 

•99985 

89 

2 

•03490 

•96510 

28-6537 

•03492 

28-6363 

1-00061 

•00061 

•99939 

88 

3 

•05234 

•94766 

19-1073 

•05241 

19-0811 

1-00137 

•00137 

•99863 

87 

4 

•06976 

•93024 

14-3356 

•06993 

14 3007 

1 00244 

•00244 

'98756 

86 

ft 

•08716 

•91284 

11-4737 

•08749 

U-4301 

1-00:382 

00381 

•99619 

85 

G 

•10453 

89547 

9-5668 

•10510 

9-5144 

1-00551 

•00548 

•99452 

84 

7 

•12187 

87813 

8-2055 

T2278 

8-1443 

1 00751 

00745 

•99255 

83 

8 

•13917 

86083 

7-1853 

14054 

7-1154 

1 00983 

•00973 

•99027 

82 

9 

•15643 

84357 

6-3925 

15838 

6-3138 

1-01247 

•01231 

•98769 

81 

10 

•17365 

•82635 

5-7588 

17633 

5*6713 

1-01543 

01519 

98481 

80 

11 

•19081 

•80919 

5 2408 

T9438 

5T446 

1.01872 

•01837 

•98163 

79 

12 

•20791 

•79209 

4-8097 

•21256 

4-7046 

1 02234 

•02185 

•97815 

78 

13 

•22495 

•77505 

4-4454 

23087 

4-3315 

1-02630 

02563 

•97437 

77 

14 

•24192 

•75808 

4-1336 

•24933 

4 0108 

1-03061 

•02970 

•97030 

76 

15 

•25882 

•74118 

3 8637 

•26795 

37321 

1-03528 

■03407 

•96593 

75 

16 

■27564 

•72436 

3-6280 

•28675 

3-4874 

1-04030 

•03874 

■96126 

74 

17 

•29237 

•70763 

3-4203 

"30573 

3-2709 

1-04569 

'04370 

95630 

73 

18 

•30902 

•69098 

3-2361 

•32492 

3-0777 

1 05146 

•04894 

•95106 

72 

19 

•32557 

•67443 

3 0716 

•34443 

2 9042 

1-05762 

•05448 

•94552 

71 

20 

34202 

•65798 

2 9238 

•36397 

2-7475 

106418 

•06031 

•93969 

70 

21 

•35837 

•64163 

2-7904 

•38386 

2-6051 

1-07115 

•06642 

•93358 

69 

22 

"37461 

•62539 

26695 

•40403 

2 4751 

1 07853 

07282 

•92718 

68 

23 

•39073 

•60927 

25593 

"42447 

2-3559 

1 08636 

•07950 

92050 

67 

24 

•40674 

•59326 

2-4586 

•44523 

2-2460 

1-09464 

•08645 

•91355 

66 

25 

42262 

•57738 

2-3662 

•46631 

2T445 

1 10338 

•09369 

"90631 

65 

26 

43837 

•56163 

2-2812 

•48773 

2-0)03 

1-11260 

■10121 

•89879 

64 

27 

45399 

•54601 

2 2027 

•50953 

1-9626 

112233 

•10899 

•89101 

63 

28 

•46947 

53053 

2-1301 

•53171 

1.8807 

1-13257 

•11705 

•88295 

62 

29 

•48481 

•51519 

2-0627 

•55431 

1-8010 

114335 

T2538 

•87462 

61 

30 

•50000 

•50000 

2-0000 

•57735 

1 7321 

115470 

T3397 

•86603 

60 

31 

•51504 

•48496 

1-9416 

•60086 

1-6643 

1 16663 

T4283 

•85717 

59 

32 

•52992 

•47008 

18871 

•62487 

1-6003 

1-17918 

T5195 

•84805 

58 

33 

•54464 

•45536 

1-8361 

•64941 

1-5399 

119236 

T6133 

•83867 

57 

34 

•55919 

•44081 

1-7883 

•67451 

1-4826 

1 20622 

T7096 

•82904 

56 

35 

•57358 

•42642 

1-7434 

70021 

1-4281 

1-22077 

•180S5 

•81915 

55 

36 

•58779 

•41221 

1-7013 

72654 

1-3764 

1-23607 

•19098 

•80902 

54 

37 

•60182 

•39819 

1 6616 

•75355 

1-3270 

1-25214 

•20136 

•79864 

53 

38 

•61566 

•38434 

1-6243 

•78129 

1-2799 

1-26902 

•21199 

•78801 

52 

39 

•62932 

*37068 

1-5890 

•80978 

1-2349 

1-28676 

"22285 

•77715 

51 

40 

•64279 

•35721 

1-5557 

83910 

11918 

1-30541 

•23396 

•76604 

50 

41 

‘65606 

•34394 

1-5243 

•86929 

1 1504 

1-32501 

•24529 

•75471 

49 

42 

•66913 

•33087 

1.4945 

90040 

1T106 

1-34563 

•25686 

•74314 

48 

43 

•68200 

•31800 

1-4663 

•93252 

1-0724 

1 36733 

26865 

•73135 

47 

44 

•69466 

30534 

1-4396 

•96569 

1-0355 

1 39016 

•28066 

•71934 

46 

45 

•70711 

•29289 

14142 

l'OOOOO 

1-0000 

1-41421 

29289 

•70711 

45 


C'Oiin 

Versin 

Secant. 

Cotan 

Tan. 

Cosec. 

Covn 

Sine. 

Deg 



























35 


ON THE USE OF THE TABLE OF NATURAL SINES, 
&c., IN INCLINE MEASURES. 

THE COLUMN OF SINES 

Gives the length of the perpendicular side of a right- 
angled triangle when the hypothenuse or radius is 1 or 
unity. 

To find the height gained on a slope or slant when the 
length and degree is given : 

Example 1 : In a breast 400 feet in length, pitching 36°, 
what is the vertical height gained ? Opposite 36 in column 
of degrees, find *58779 as length of sine ; then by propor¬ 
tion, as 1 : *58779 :: 400 feet : 235*116 feet. 

Example 2 : If a wagon weighing 4 tons is being hoisted 
up a slope of 30° what is the strain on the rope, indepen¬ 
dent of f ridtion and weight of rope ? Opposite 30 in first 
column, find in column of sines *5 ; then, as the vertical 
height is to the length of the slope so is the strain on the 
rope to the weight ; or, by proportion, as *5 : 1 :: 2 tons : 
4 tons. 

Then from a table on strength of ropes we find the re¬ 
quired rope for work, due allowance being made for 
weight of rope, friction, factor of safety, &c. For an 
angle greater than 45° commence at the bottom of right 
hand column. 



36 


THE COLUMN OF COSINES. 


This column gives the length of the base or horizontal 
measurement of a right-angled triangle, the hypothenuse 
being 1 or unity. To obtain the horizontal measurement 
by proportion when the hypothenuse or incline and angle 
is given : As 1 : cosine :: length of plane : the base or 
horizontal measurement. 

Example 1 : A slope is 870 feet in depth and pitches at 
35°, what is the horizontal distance, or how long should it 
be made upon the map ? Opposite 35°, on the first or de¬ 
gree column, find ‘81915 ; then as 1 : *81915 :: 870 : 712*66 
feet. 

To find the cubic contents of coal seams. Let T equal 
thickness of the seam in yards. Then 


4840 X T 


- = cubic yards in one acre. 


cosine. 


Example: How many cubic yards are in a field of 12 
acres containing a seam of coal 6 feet thick at a pitch of 
30° ? Find in column of cosines opposite 30°, *86603 ; then, 
6 feet are equivalent to 2 yards, which is the thickness of 
seam, or T. Then 


4840 X 2 


— = 11177*56 cubic yards, 


*86603 





37 


or the contents per acre, and 11177*56 X 12, the number of 
acres, = 134,130*72 cubic yards, the contents of the tract. 

This table is also used in the solution of problems in 
connection with right-angled triangles. Let us suppose 
for instance there is a seam of coal dipping at an angle of 
35° westward, and it is desired to sink a shaft 300 feet west 
of the outcroppings. When the surface is level it is plain 
that the seam, the line from the outcroppings to the shaft, 
and the shaft, when sunk, forms a right-angled triangle. 
The line on the surface can be taken as the cosine while 
the shaft forms the sine I. C. on diagram, page 33, and the 
seam forms the radius. Hence, we make the following pro¬ 
portion : 

cosine 35° sine 35° 

As *81915 : .57358 :: 300 : 210 feet, the depth 

of the shaft. 

Or the surface line may be taken as the radius, the shaft 
as the tangent and the seam as the secant. See diagram on 
page 33. Then as 
radius tangent 35° 

1 : .70021 :: 300 : 210 feet, the depth of shaft. 

Again, let us suppose in a shaft there is a seam 50 feet 
from the bottom, dipping at an angle of 30° east, it is 
desired to drive a tunnel from the bottom of the shaft 
across the measures till it meets the seam. The distance 
from the bottom of the shaft to the seam can be taken as 
the sine, the tunnel as the cosine, and the seam as the 
radius, thus : 

sine 30° cos. 30° 

As *5 : *86603 :: 50 : 86*6 feet, the length of the 

tunnel. 

The table is further used for finding the northing and 
southing, easting and westing of a survey. Thus, if we 
desire to know the northing and easting of N. 18° E., 56 
links, we find in the table opposite 180, *95006 cos. and 
*30902 sin., which multiplied by 56 gives 53*26 northing and 
17*3 of easting, and the distance between the extreme 
points may be found as follows : 


X 53*26 2 -f 17*3 2 = 56 nearly. 



38 


MENSURATION. 

To find the area of a square, rectangle, rhombus or 
rhomboid, multiply the base by the altitude. 

To find the area of a trapezoid multiply one-half the 
sum of the parallel sides by the altitude. 

Circumference of circle = diameter multiplied by 3T416. 

Area of circle -= diameter squared X ’7854. 

Area of sector of circle = length of arc X % radius. 

Diameter of circle = circumference -4- 3*1416. 

Surface of cylinder = length X circumference -(- area of 
of both ends. 

Surface of cone = circumference of base X M slant 
height -|- area of base. 

Surface of sphere — diameter squared X 3*1416. 

Area of triangle = base multiplied by ^ the altitude. 

Contents of cylinder = area of one end X length. 

Contents of sphere = diameter cubed X .5236. 

Contents of cone=area of base X % perpendicular. 



39 


MINE SURVEYING. 


COMPASS SURVEYING. 

Surveying with the compass, though less accurate than 
Vernier surveying, is so much more simple, so easily 
learned, and so peculiarly adapted for the use of miners 
and mine bosses, that it will be best to treat of it more in 
detail than its more complicated substitutes. 

The compass best adapted for beginners is one on which 
the plate is divided into quadrants, that is from 0 to 90°, 
from 90° to 0, and so on. 

After a compass, either a common hand one or one 
which can be mounted on a tripod for convenience of 
leveling, has been obtained, it is first placed over that 
point from which the survey is to be started. It is then 
leveled to allow the needle to swing easily. When the 
rod or light is held over the point on which the first sight 
is to be taken, the direction, after sighting the instru¬ 
ment, may be easily ascertained as soon as the needle has 
steadied itself, by observing the number of degrees and 
between what points on the compass the north end of the 
needle (distinguished by a silver wire found always on 
the south end) may steady itself. The distance between 
these two points is then accurately measured, noting any 
intermediate points which the operator may desire to 
have. 

The instrument is then moved and placed over that 
point to which the first sight was taken and leveled. 

The method pursued in taking the previous sight must 
then be repeated and so continued till the end of the sur¬ 
vey is reached, when the notes are ready to be placed on 
paper by plotting, which will be treated of hereafter. 

To make a survey of this kind is so easily understood, 
that it would be best for all who have not had the experi¬ 
ence, to adopt this plan before they attempt to master the 
more difficult art of making a Vernier survey. 


VERNIER SURVEYING. 

In treating of surveying of this kind it may be said in 
the start, that the operator who has been making surveys 
with the compass for some time, is much better able to 
begin with the Vernier than one who has had no experi- 




40 


ence with the needle. To make a Vernier survey a Transit 
with sliding plate and vertical circle must be had. The 
sliding plate is arranged under and on the outside edge of 
the compass box, and is divided into degrees and halves 
from 0 to 360°, while a small plate, called the Vernier, 
above the lower, records the minutes. On the Transit the 
compass plate is generally divided the same as the Vernier 
plate and not into quadrants. In starting the survey the 
instrument must first be placed by means of a plummet 
directly over the point of beginning and leveled. The 
sliding plate is then set so that it coincides with 0 of the 
Vernier, and the plate is then clamped and turned so that 
the north end of the needle corresponds with 0 on the 
compass plate. The lower screw is then fastened and the 
Vernier plate screw loosened when the first sight is taken, 
and the course recorded by noticing beyond what num¬ 
ber of degrees on the lower plate the 0 of the Vernier 
points and the number of minutes beyond this, by count¬ 
ing on the Vernier from () to where a line on the Vernier 
exactly corresponds with one on the lower plate. As a 
check the needle course is recorded, which should nearly 
correspond with that of the Vernier, according to the 
quantity of magnetic attraction by which it may be in¬ 
fluenced. The instrument is then moved and set exactly 
on the point where the sight had just been taken and 
again leveled, great care being taken to have the same 
reading on the plate as was recorded at the previous 
sight. While the plates remain clamped the lower screw 
is loosened and a sight is taken back upon the point just 
left. When this is done the order is reversed, the lower 
screw being fastened and the Vernier plate allowed to 
move and another sight ahead is taken and the course 
read. At this point, by referring to the needle, which 
has been mentioned heretofore to be used as a check, the 
course will be found to differ from the reading on the 
Vernier 180°, or as near thereto as the magnetic attraction 
will permit, The needle being established as the me¬ 
ridian at the beginning of the survey, it will be seen at 
once that the reading on the Vernier is not correct, but 
is recording a course directly opposite to the one being 
run, and in order to overcome this difficulty the true 
course is recorded by adding or subtracting the difference 
180° after taking into consideration the direction of the 
survey. The instrument is then moved to the next station 
and the same course pursued and so continued through- 


41 


out the whole of the survey, great care being constantly 
taken by using the needle as a check to avoid noting 
courses in opposite directions to the correct ones, and to 
bear in mind to note the distance between all stations and 
intermediate points. 

The vertical circle is divided from 0 to 90° to the right 
and left of the centre, and has a Vernier attached in or¬ 
der that slopes may be minutely recorded, taken either up 
or down. In taking an angle the sight must be taken in 
the rod or light at the same distance from the ground as 
is the telescope of the instrument. The angle is then re¬ 
corded from the circle in the same manner as one from 
the Vernier plate, and is max-ked plus or minus, according 
as the sight is taken up or down. 

The distance between the points having been ascer¬ 
tained, the vertical height may be found by means of 
tables provided for that purpose. 


PLOTTING. 

The survey having been made, it is easy to draw a plan 
of it on papei*, For this purpose draw a stx*aight line to 
represent the meridian passing through the first station. 
An angle is then laid off equal to the angle which the first 
sight of the survey makes with the meridian and the 
length of the sight and the intermediate points marked 
off from a scale of equal parts. Thi-ough the extremity 
of this course a second meiddian parallel to the first can 
be drawn and the same course pursued as before. By 
this means the entire survey can be plotted, but in order 
to avoid the inconvenience of drawing a meridian through 
every station, an instrument called the ♦ square can be 
used by placing the blade parallel to the meiidian, and 
sliding it along the table from station to station with the 
pi*otractor, fi*om which the angles are laid off, held closely 
against it. 


LEVELING. 

In leveling there is little to be remembered and little 
more required than common care, as it is simply the art 
of determining the difference of level between any two 
points. 

The leveling instrument generally consists of a large 
spirit-level attached to a telescope and mounted on a 



42 


tripod similar to a Transit. The surveyor should also be 
provided with a leveling staff, which consists of a straight 
bar of wood, six feet or more in length, divided into 
inches and tenths of an inch, and having a groove running 
its entire length. A smaller staff of the same length 
called the slide, also divided into inches and tenths, is in¬ 
serted in this groove and moves freely along it. At the 
upper end of the slide is a rectangular or round piece of 
metal called a target, about six inches wide, divided into 
four equal parts by two lines drawn at right angles to 
each other, with the opposite parts painted different, so 
that they may be distinguished at great distances. 

Having adjusted the level by means of the proper 
screws, turn the telescope to the staff held in the rear, and 
note the height on it to which the target is raised in order 
to correspond with the wires of the telescope. The in¬ 
strument is then placed beyond the staff and a back sight 
taken on the staff. Level in the same manner from station 
to station until the desired point be reached, when the 
difference of level between the first and last stations may 
be readily found by taking the difference between the 
sum of the heights at the back and the forward stations. 

This is very simple, easily understood and quickly 
learned, as can be seen by the following sketch : 



Placing the instrument at a point advantageous for a 
sight both back and forward the heights are read from the 
rod and recorded under Back Sights and Fore Sights, as 
follows : 


Sta, 

1 

2 

3 

4 

5 


B. S. 
3 
2 
8 
G 


19 


F. S. 

4 

4 

1 

2 

11 


















43 


As the Back Sights in this case exceed the Fore Sights by 
8 the last Sta. 5 is 8 feet higher than Sta. 1, indicated by 
the black line AA. 

The levels can be carried this way an indefinite distance, 
in any direction, and so long as the Back Sights are in ex¬ 
cess you are running up hill, and when the Fore Sights are 
the greater, you are descending. 

HOW TO USE THE GRADOMETER, OR GRADING 

LEVEL. 

This instrument is of great utility in finding the pitch or 
angle of slopes, roads, chutes, pipes, &c., and for making 
profiles of breasts or workings, to find the perpendicular 
height attained when approaching old levels or workings 
full of water or gas. 

To find the angle of dip, place the blade in the groove of 
the leg containing the spirit level ; place the other leg upon 
the surface or plane of which you wish to ascertain the 
pitch or angle ; open until the spirit-level shows the bub¬ 
ble in the centre of the glass ; the angle up to 45° will be 
found on.the blade. 

To find the angle of dip when it is over 45°, open the 
blade until it makes a right angle with the leg ; place on 
the surface or plane, and fold in the leg containing the 
spirit level until the bubble shows in the centre of the 
glass ; push the blade into the groove, taking care not to 
move the legs, and the degrees indicated taken from 90° 
will be the angle of dip required. 


TO ASCERTAIN THE SCALE OF A PLAN OR MAP, 
WHEN IT IS NOT STATED. 


When the area of any portion is known, the scale may 
be found by measuring that portion by any scale. Then 
use the following formula :— 


a=area as given on the plan. 
s=assumed scale. 
a*=correct scale. 
m —area by assumed scale, then 


\—— =x or, x- 


! X« 


m 


m 




44 


USEFUL NUMBERS IN SURVEYING. 


For converting 

Multiplier. 

Converse. 

Feet into links. 

1*515 

.66 

Yards 44 links. 

_ 4*545 

.22 

Sq. feet “ acres.. 

.0000229 

43,560* 

Sq. yards 44 acres. 

.0002066 

4,840* 

Feet 44 miles. 

.00019 

5,280* 

Yards 44 miles. 

.00057 

1,760* 

Chains 41 miles. 

.0125 

80* 


CHAINING ON SLOPES. 

A—Angle of slope. 

L—Length of line chained on slope. 

1— Length of line reduced to horizontal. 

l^LK. K=cos. A. 

(See table of Natural Sines and Tangents.) 

TO SET OUT A RIGHT ANGLE WITH A CHAIN. 

Take 40 links on the chain, 3 > links for the perpendicular 
and 50 for the hypothenuse. 

COMPUTATION OF ACREAGE. 

Divide the area into convenient triangles, and multiply 
the base of each triangle in links by half the perpendicular 
in links ; cut off five figures to the right , the remaining 
figui-es will be acres ; multiply the five figures so cut off 
by 4, and again cut off five figures, and the remainder is in 
roods ; multiply the five figures by 4 M , and again cut off 
for perches. 









45 


NOTES ON MINING. 


PROSPECTING. 

For prospecting mineral land diamond-pointed drilling 
machines have superseded all other systems, and results 
wholly unattainable otherwise are accomplished. In hard 
or soft measures cores for the whole distance bored, 
whether perpendicular or horizontal, are secured. These 
are in the form of solid cylinders, showing clearly the 
stratification and mineral passed through, the size and 
quality of the veins, &c., thus furnishing valuable infor¬ 
mation in making contracts for shafting or tunneling. 
The samples of mineral secured are not pieces of disin¬ 
tegrated vein matter, but perfect sections of the ore body 
or seam, which can be labeled and preserved for future 
reference. 

The average progress made in prospecting in the An¬ 
thracite coal region is from 50 to 100 feet per week, in¬ 
cluding all delays due to drawing core from holes, &c. 
In the bituminous region the average progress made is 
from 75 to 125 feet per week. Holes have been put down 
2100 feet, the original size of hole being preserved to the 
bottom, and it is claimed that the limit of depth that can 
be reached has not as yet been found. 


SHAFTING AND TUNNELING. 

Power drills driven by steam or compressed air are su¬ 
perseding hand-drilling in rock work. Much more rapid 
progress can be made with them and at less cost. 

Compressed air is the preferable motor, as it can be car¬ 
ried for great distances without any considerable loss of 
power, and in many localities it is difficult to get rid of 
the exhaust steam. Then the working of the drill with 
compressed air affords a supply of pure fresh air that is 
frequently a very important desideratum. 

Steel-pointed rock drills are operated upon the “per¬ 
cussion” or “blow” principle, while the diamond-pointed 




46 


drills are borers. With the diamond drills sinking by the 
long hole process has been very successfully conducted in 
the Anthracite region. At the East Norwegian shafts, 
near Pottsville, which are down 1600 feet, the best drilling 
was 79 feet in 12 hours, and the best blasting 8 > feet per 
month. 

The steel-pointed or “percussion” drills are extensively 
used in sinking, driving and all kinds of drilling in mines, 
and for quarry and railroad work. For surface work they 
are mounted on tripods, for shafting or tunneling on bars 
or columns securely fastened against the sides or top and 
bottom of the work, or are mounted on wagons adapted 
for the purpose. 

The cost of shafting and tunneling, of course, varies 
with the strata. A shaft through conglomerate, such as 
overlies the Mammoth vein in the Anthracite region, 15 
by 25 feet in area, all hand drilling, will cost about $2 »<1 
per yard. Through the same strata, a tunnel 8 by 9 feet 
can be driven, with the use of the present explosives, for 
$59 per yard. Slopes timbered with bottom and top sills 
2 > feet long, legs 14 feet high, and with timber 5 feet from 
centre to centre, can be sunk in the Anthracite region, if 
there is not too much water, for about $4') per yard. 

In sinking, first mark off the ground and then dig out 
the soil to a depth of six feet. Put in a crib of timber at 
the bottom of the pit thus formed, and another three feet 
above this, supported on props, and a third and fourth, so 
that the top crib is 3 feet above the surface for tipping 
rubbish. Back up the cribs with plank, and proceed simi¬ 
larly for the next six feet, and so on until the solid is 
reached, when the sides will stand without temporary sup¬ 
port. 


HAULAGE. 

There has been but little experience in this country with 
the various systems of haulage, such as tail rope, endless 
chain, <fcc., that are employed in Europe to cheapen the 
cost of the inside movement of coal. They have been in¬ 
troduced at some places, however, and may come into more 
general use in the future. 

For cars underground with 1134 inch wheels, the friction 
to be overcome may be taken at T ^.of the load, when the 


47 


road is in first-rate condition. When the road is in ordi¬ 
nary condition, at ^ of the load. 

The friction of the ropes and sheaves may be taken at 
5 ^ of their weight ; the sheaves are, as a rule, 30 lb. in 
weight and 10 yards apart. 

The least practical gradient for a self-acting incline is 1 
in 30 ; and the angle of equal resistance of fulls and 
empties in both directions is 1 in 111. 

The following is the formula to find the inclination of 
the road to make the resistance equal in both directions : 

Let W—weight of a loaded wagon or tub. 
w~- “ “ an empty wagon or tub. 

F=measure of friction. 

X=inclination required. 

W —w 

Then X= —— X F 

W +w 

The following is the formula for finding the least incli¬ 
nation at which the full set will hold the empty one in sus¬ 
pension : 

W-f-w 

X=-XF 

W —w 

The useful effect of a hauling engine in coal conveyed 
may be taken at 50 per cent, of the steam pressure. 

Mr. T. F. Thomas, of England, in his “Notes on Coal 
Mining,” lays down the following general rules with re¬ 
spect to the different methods of underground haulage. 


TAIL ROPE SYSTEM. 

This system of hauling may be used under almost any 
circumstances, and is to be recommended particularly in 
the following cases : 

When the gradient dipping inbye is not sufficient for 
the empties to drag the rope after them. 

When the gradient outbye is not sufficient for the sets 
to self-act. 

When the full wagon or tubs coming outbye will not 
pull the ropes after them. 




48 


ENDLESS CHAIN SYSTEM. 

This system is particularly applicable to the following 
cases : 

When the two ends of the engine plane are about on the 
same level. 

When the gradient is heavy. 

When the road is straight. 

The advantages of this system are that a low speed is 
required, varying from 1 to 3 miles per hour ; conse¬ 
quently, a very good road is not needed, and a small en¬ 
gine is sufficient. 

ENDLESS ROPE SYSTEM No. 1. 

A double road is necessary. 12 to 3 ) tubs are run in a 
set. 

The advantages are : 

A driving-wheel used instead of a drum. 

One-third less rope used than in the Main and Tail Rope 
system. 

No power is lost in brakeing the drum. 

It is, however, difficult to apply this system where there 
are many branches, because of the tightness of the rope. 

ENDLESS ROPE SYSTEM NO 2. 

This system is applicable only where the road has no 
branches and has a rise in one direction, but it may have 
any curves. 


MINE LOCOMOTIVES. 

The mine locomotives lately introduced are much • 
more economical than mule power, and, if it were not for 
the deleterious gases they generate, would be used wherever 
the sizes of the openings would permit and the length of 
the hauls make them advantageous. 





49 


Mr. T. D. Jones, now Superintendent of the Ebervalo 
Coal Company, in his last report as Inspector of the 
Southern District of Luzerne and Carbon counties, says 
of the use of the mine locomotive that the following con¬ 
ditions should be taken into consideration : 

Adequate ventilation produced by mechanical appli¬ 
ances; that by fan preferable. Velocity of the air current 
should be from 8 to 12 feet per second. The mean speed 
of the locomotive is about 7 feet a second, which is a trifle 
less than the velocity of the air current suggested. The 
size of gangways and tunnels, where locomotive travels, 
should not be less than 7 feet high by 10 feet wide ; the 
more room the better. The locomotive track should be 
kept in good condition. 

The engine run should be from tunnel mouth, bottom 
of shaft, or foot of slope, as the case may be, to inside tun¬ 
nel or siding ; men ought not to be permitted to work on 
the route of the locomotive, owing to the noxious gases 
emitted. 

The result of an investigation into the comparative cost 
of haulage by mine locomotives and mules in Mr. Jones’ 
district, at nineteen collieries, showed a saving of more 
than one-half by locomotive haulage. 

Men should not be compelled to work in air fouled by 
mine locomotives, as carbonic oxide is produced by them. 
It is very destructive to animal life, and very serious ac¬ 
cidents have already been traced to it where it has been 
generated in this way. 

WORKING OF BITUMINOUS SEAMS. 

All coal seams are worked by one of the two methods’ 
Longwall, or Pillar and Stall, or by some modification of 
one of these two methods. 

The Longwall method can be adopted with advantage 
when the seam is small, free from faults, and has a good 
roof. 

. The Pillar and Stall method is best when the roof is wet, 
the coal full of gas, or it is desired to prevent sinking of 
the surface. 

In Longwall it is estimated that about 15 per cent, more 
large coal is obtained than in Pillar and Stall, and from 10 
to 25 per cent, more coal per acre. 

The. following are general directions for working in the 
different methods : 


50 


LONGWALL. 

In eoft seams, when the roof crushes, the wall-face 
should be perpendicular to the cleat, and in strong seams 
parallel to the cleat. Its proper position is more depend¬ 
ent upon the inclination of the seam than upon the direc¬ 
tion of the cleat, and the following general rules should be 
observed : 

If the inclination of the seam is moderate, the wall-face 
should be perpendicular to the dip, when the roads will 
be easy to maintain, and a level course is obtained in the 
face. 

Where the dip of the seam is considerable, the wall-face 
should be parallel to the direction of dip, when the prin¬ 
cipal roads for bringing down the coal will be cross-cuts, 
which can be worked likely as self-acting inclines. The 
stalls will be very short, not more than 5 yards long each. 
This method prevents accumulation of gas in the face, 
which would result if the wall-face were perpendicular to 
the rise of the seam. 


PILLAR AND STALL. 

The size of the pillars will depend on the depth of the 
seam from the surface. 

In his “Winning and Working of Collieries,” Mr. Dunn, 
of England, gives the following scale for first working, 
with the design of afterwards taking out the pillars, the 
width of the principal workings being 5 yards, and cross 
holings 2 yards. 


Depth in 

Size of pillars 

Proportion 

Depth in 

Size of pillars 

Proportion 

feet. 

in yards. 

in pillars. 

feet. 

in yards. 

in pillars. 

120 

.. 20 by 5 

.. *41 

1080 .. 

26 by 14 

.. *69 

240 

.. 20 “ 6 

.. *50 

1200 . . 

26 “ 16 

.. *71 

360 

.. 22 “ 7 

.. *52 

1320 .. 

18 “ 18 

.. -73 

480 

.. 22 “ 8 

.. *57 

1440 .. 

28 “ 20 

.. -75 

600 

.. 22 “ 9 

.. -59 

1560 .. 

30 “ 21 

.. *77 

720 

.. 22 “ 12 

.. *61 

1680 .. 

30 “ 22% 

.. *78 

840 

.. 26 “ 15 

.. *63 

I860 .. 

30 “ 24 

.. -79 

960 

.. 28 “ 16 

*66 

M. Wear- 
mouth, 

40 “ 29 

!-so 










51 


PROPORTION OF PILLARS TO OPENINGS. 

In the following table, the weight thrown upon pillars 
at different depths by the removal of different proportions 
of coal is given. 

Weight on Pillars, the proportion to mine got being 


Depth 

90 

80 

70 

60 

50 

40 

30 

20 

10 

of 

per 

per 

per 

per 

per 

per 

per 

per 

per 

seam 

cent. 

cent. 

cent. 

cent. 

cent. 

cent. 

cent. 

cent. 

cent. 

in 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

feet. 

per 

per 

per 

per 

per 

per 

per 

per 

per 


sq. in. 

, sq.in 

sq. in. 

sq. in. 

sq. in. 

sq. in. 

sq. in. 

sq. in. 

sq. in. 

100 

Ill 

125 

142 

165 

200 

250 

333 

500 

1,000 

500 

555 

625 

710 

830 

1, 00 

1,250 

1,665 

2,500 

5,000 

1,000 

1,111 

1,250' 

1,428 

1,666 

2,000 

2,500 

3.333 

5,000 

10,000 

1,500 

1.66G 

1,875 

2,138 

2,496 

3,000 

3,750 

4,998 

7,500 

15 000 

2,000 

2,222 

2,500 

2,956 

3 333 

4,000 

5.000 

6,666 



a, 0(H) 

3,333 

3,750 

4.381 

4,999 

6,000 

7,500 




4.0(H) 

4,444 

5,000 

5,91 1 

6,666 

8,000 





5,000 

5,555 

6,250 

7,3)0 







10,000 

11,111 

12,500 









WORKING OF ANTHRACITE SEAMS. 


HINTS FOR THE MAMMOTH SEAM WHEN IT IS SOFT AND SHELL Y 

OR SLIPPERY, AT AN ANGLE OF MORE THAN 50°, AND GEN¬ 
ERATING LARGE QUANTITIES OF FIRE-DAMP. 

The great danger to be guarded against is the sudden 
liberation of gas should a breast “run;” that is, should the 
coal at the face loosen and run out of its own gravity, 
only stopping when it chokes or tills up the open space 
below. To meet these conditions, the air-course may be 
driven above the gangway and used as a return, the fan 
being attached as an exhaust, and the working breasts 
ventilated in pairs. The inside manway of one of a pair 
of breasts is connected with the gangway for the intake 
and the outside manway of the other breast with the return 
air-way, giving each pair of breasts a separate split of the 
current. In collieries where this system of working is fol¬ 
lowed the coal is soft. A new breast is worked up a few 
yards, but as soon as it is opened out the coal runs freely 
and the manways are pushed up on each side as rapidly as 
possible, to keep up with the face. The two miners, one on 

























eith er side, sometimes finish a breast without being able 
to cross to each other. The work is done exclusively with 
Davy lamps, and when a breast “runs” the gas is liberated 
in such quantities that it frequently fills breasts from the 
top to the air-way before the men can get down the man¬ 
way on the return side. When the gas reaches the cross¬ 
hole, it passes into the return air-way without reaching 
any part where men are working. Should a “run” of coal 
block a breast by closing the manway, it affects the cur¬ 
rent of one pair of breasts alone. As the gangway is the 
intake, leakage at the batteries jiasses into the breasts, as 
the cross-holes are above their level and the gas is thus 
kept above the starter when at the draw-hole. The gang¬ 
way, chutes and air-way are supplied by wooden pipes, 
which connect with a door behind the inside chute. If a 
breast runs up to the surface, it does not affect the return 
air-way, as it is in the solid. 

Among the disadvantages urged against this system of 
working are the following : 

It increases the friction, as the air must pass in the air¬ 
way all the distance from the breast to the fan, the area of 
the air-way being small in comparison to the gangway or 
intake. 

As the faces of the breasts are so much higher than the 
return air-way, the lighter gas must be forced down into 
the return against the buoyant power of its smaller specific 
gravity. 

The reduction of friction obtained by splitting is neu¬ 
tralized by each split running up one small manway and 
down another ; the advantage of running through several 
pillar headings and thus securing a shorter course being 
lost. This can be partly obviated by ventilating the 
breasts in groups, but the dangers avoided in splitting are 
increased. 

Black-damp, which accumulates in the empty or partly 
e mpty breasts, works its way down and mixes with the in¬ 
take current, as there is no return current in the breast 
strong enough to carry it away, the return being closed in 
the air-way. 

All things considered, when the seam is soft and has a 
pitch of 40° and upward, and emits large quantities of gas 
in sudden outbursts, as in running breasts, this system is 
the best that can be adopted. 


r> 3 


WHEN THE COAL IS HARD AND GAS IS NOT FREELY EVOLVED. 

The reverse of the system just described is followed at 
some collieries where the coal is hard and but little gas is 
encountered. The air-way is driven over the gangway or 
against the top, the fan being used to force the air inward 
to the end of the air-way. The air is distributed as it re¬ 
turns, being held up at intervals by distributing doors 
placed along the gangway. 

Among the advantages claimed for this plan are the fol¬ 
lowing : 

As the pressure is outward, it forces smoke and gas out 
at any openings which may exist from crop-hole falls or 
other causes. 

The warm air from the interior of the mine returning 
up the hoisting slope or shaft prevents it from freezing. 

As the current is carried from the fan to the end of each 
lift without passing through working places, the opening 
of doors as cars are passing, <fcc., does not interfere with 
the current. 

If a locomotive is used, the smoke and gases generated 
by it are carried away from the men toward the bottom. 
Locomotives are generally used only from the main turn¬ 
out to the bottom. 

An objection to this system is that the gangway, as the 
return, is apt to be smoky. Starters and loaders are forced 
to work in more or less smoke, and even the mules work to 
disadvantage, while if gas is given off, it is passed out over 
the lights of those working in the gangway. 

However, in places where there is but little gas and air¬ 
ways of large area can be driven, this plan works very sat¬ 
isfactorily, and some of the best ventilated collieries are 
worked upon it. 

An objection advanced by some against forcing-fans, is 
that they increase the pressure, thus damming the gas 
back in the strata. In case the speed of the fan is slacked 
off, the accumulated gas may respond to the lessened pres¬ 
sure and spring out in large volumes from its pent-up 
state. This argument, however, works both ways. An 
exhaust fan, running at a given speed, is taking off pres¬ 
sure, and if anything occurs to block the intake the pres¬ 
sure is diminished, and the gas responds to the decrease 
upon exactly the same principle. 


54 


HINTS FOB THE SMALLER SEAMS WHEN THEY ABE SMALL AND 
LAY FROM HORIZONTAL TO ABOUT lb°. 

Two gangways may be driven, the lower or main gang¬ 
way being the intake. Branch gangways should then be 
•driven diagonally or at a slant, with a panel or group of 
working places on each slant gangway. Large headings 
should connect the panels. In this system the air is car¬ 
ried directly to the face of the gangway and up into the 
breasts, returning back through the working places. The 
intake and return are separated by a solid pillar, the 
only openings being the slant gangways on which are the 
panels. 

The advantages of this plan are several : 

The main gangway is solid, with the exception of the 
small cross-holes connecting with the gangway above ; 
these furnish air to the gangway and are small and easily 
kept tight. These stoppings should be built of brick, and 
made strong enough to withstand concussion. 

A full trip of wagons can be loaded and coupled in each 
panel or section without interfering with or detaining the 
traffic on the main road ; one trip can be loaded while an¬ 
other is run out to the main gangway for transportation 
to the bottom. 

The only break in the intake current is when a trip of 
cars is taken out from or returns to a panel or section ; 
this can be partially provided against by double doors, 
set far enough apart to permit one to close after the trip 
before the other is opened. This distance can be secured 
by opening the first three breasts on a back-switch above 
the road through the gangway pillar, or by running each 
branch over the other far enough to obtain the distance 
for the double doors. 

If it is not desired to carry the whole volume of air to 
the end of the air-way, a split can be made at each branch 
road. These will act as unequal splits in reducing fric¬ 
tion, and although not theoretically correct, are preferable 
to dragging the whole current the full length of the 
workings. 

The objections urged to this plan are : 

That it involves too much expense in the large amount 
of narrow work at high prices necessary to open out a 
colliery ; that it necessitates a double track the whole 
length of the lift, and that the grade ascends into each 


panel or section. But the latter criticism falls, because 
the loss of power hauling the empty wagons up a slight 
grade is more than made up by the loaded wagons run¬ 
ning down, while the mules are away putting a trip into 
another panel or section. 

For a large colliery this is, without doubt, the best and 
cheapest system. 


WHEN THE SEAM IS SMALL AND LIES AT AN ANGLE OF MOEE 

THAN 10°. 

In small seams lying at an angle of more than 10°, and 
too small to permit an air-way over the chutes, it is more 
difficult to maintain ventilation. If air-holes are put 
through every few breasts, and a fresh start obtained by 
closing the back holes, or if an opening can be gotten 
through to the last lift as often as the current becomes 
weak, an adequate amount of air can be maintained, be¬ 
cause the lift worked can be used as the intake and the 
abandoned lift above as the return. To ventilate fresh 
ground, the filling of the chutes with coal will have to 
be depended upon, or a brattice must be carried along 
the gangway. This can be done for a limited distance 
only, as brattice leaks too much air. As a rule, collieries 
worked upon this plan are run along until the smoke ac¬ 
cumulates and the ventilation becomes poor ; then a new 
hole is run through and the brattice removed and used as 
before for the next section. This operation is repeated 
until the lift is worked out. Sometimes, to make the 
chutes tight, canvas covers are put on the drawholes, 
but, as they are usually left to the loaders to adjust, they 
are often very imperfectly applied. Then, as the coal is 
frequently very large, the air will leak through the bat¬ 
teries. 

This plan works very satisfactorily if the openings are 
made at short intervals,, say as frequent as every fifth 
breast, but the distance is usually much greater to save 
expense. As the power of the current decreases as the 
distance between the air-holes is increased, good ventila¬ 
tion is entirely a question of how often a cut-off is ob¬ 
tained. 

An effective ventilation could be maintained in a small 
seam at a heavy angle by working with short lifts, say two 


56 


lifts of fifty yards instead of one of a hundred as at 
present. The gangways should be frequently connected, 
and one used as an intake and the other as a return. This 
would necessitate driving two gangways where one is now 
made to do, but the additional expense would be made up 
in the greater proportion of coal won. 

PRODUCE OF COAL SEAMS. 


SPECIFIC GRAVITY AND WEIGHT OF COAL. 

To determine the specific gravity of coal, take a small 
piece of coal, suspend it by means of a horse hair from 
the under side of the pan of a carefully adjusted balance, 
and weigh it both in and out of water ; divide its weight 
in the air by the loss of weight in the water, and the quo¬ 
tient is the specific gravity. 

Example : 

A piece of coal weighs say 480 grains. 

Loss of weight when weighed in water, 398 grains. 

Then f||=l*206, specific gravity of the coal compared 
with water at 1*000. 

The following table gives the weight and specific grav¬ 
ity of various coals : 


Name of Coal. 

S. G. 

Weight 
of a 
cubic 

Weight 
of a 
cubic 

Newcastle Hartley, Eng... 

. 1*29 

foot 
in lbs. 

.... 80*6 

yard 
in tons. 

_ *972 

Wigan, 4 feet, Eng. 

. 1*2 

.... 75* 

_ *9:4 

Portland, Eng. 

. 1*30 

.... 81*2 

_ *978 

Anthracite, Wales. 

. 1*39 

_ 86*9 

. 1*047 

Eglington, Scotland. 

. 1*25 

_ 78*1 

_ *941 

Anthracite, Irish. 

. 1*59 

_ 99*4 

_ 1*193 

Anthracite, Penn. 

. 1*55 

_ 96*9 

_ 1*167 

Bituminous, “ . 

. 1*40 

_ 87-5 

_ 1*054 

Block Coal, Ind. 

. 1*27 

_ 79*4 

_ *956 



















57 


PRODUCE OF BITUMINOUS SEAMS. 

A ready way of finding the quantity of available coal 
in a given area of a seam is given by W. Fairley, M. E., of 
England. He takes an acre of coal one inch thick to con¬ 
tain 100 tons. This leaves a sufficient margin for faults 
and loss of working. Thus : a vein of coal twenty-four 
inches thick will yield 24 10 tons per acre. 

To ascertain the exact quantity of coal under a given 
area—presuming the seam to be of regular thickness and 
quality throughout—find the specific gravity ; then, as 
this represents the weight of a cubic foot in ounces, it is 
simply a matter of calculation to obtain the gross weight. 

The exact weight of coal seams can be got from the 


table below : 





Weight in the 

Weight of a cubic foot ii 

Specific 

natural bed, per acre, 

the broken state in lbs. 

gravity 

per inch thick, 

, -* 

— 


in tons. 

Large coal. Small coal, 

1*10 . 

. 111-411 .... 

.. 42-62 ... 

37T2 

1*15 . 


.. 44-56 ... 

38-81 

1-20 . 

. 121*540 .... 

.. 46-50 ... 

40*50 

1-25 . 


.. 48-43 ... 

42-18 

1*30 . 


.. 50-37 ... 

43-87 

1-35 . 

. 136-732 . 

.. 52-31 ... 

45*56 

1-40 . 


.. 54*25 ... 

47-25 

1-45 . 

. 146-860 . 

.. 56*18 ... 

48-93 

1-50 . 

. 151*925 .... 

.. 58-12 ... 

50-62 


The weight of coal in its broken state, that is, as it 
comes to the surface in cars or otherwise, will depend on 
its mechanical structure ; it has been ascertained by ex¬ 
periment with bituminous coal in England that as brought 
to the surface it weighs, if large, in proportion to the 
solid coal as 62 is to 100, and the weight of the small as 
54 is to 100. 

If, then, the figures in the second column be multiplied 
by the number of inches any bituminous coal seam is in 
thickness, the result will be the contents per acre in tons. 
























SHOWING THE NUMBER OF TONS OF COAL UNDER 
A SQUARE MILE AT DIFFERENT THICKNESSES. 


Feet. 

1 . 

Tons. 

... 972,320 

1 Feet. 

9 .. 


Tons. 

.... 8,750,880 

2 

... 1.944,640 

10 .. 



3 . 


20 .. 


... 19.446.400 

4 . 


30 .. 

. 

.... 29,169,600 

r> .. 

... 4,861,600 

40 .. 


.... 38,892,800 

6 . 

... 5.833>920 

50 .. 


.... 48.616,000 

7 . 

... 6,806,240 

60 .. 


... 58.339,200 

8 . 

... 7,778,560 

70 .. 


... 68,062,400 


PRODUCE OF ANTHRACITE COAL SEAMS. 


In making calculations upon the net product—or 
amount of prepared coal that can be shipped from a given 
area of an anthracite coal seam—allowance must be made 
for the loss in mining and in preparation. This allowance 
will vary with the seam, and will be far larger in the Mam¬ 
moth seam than in those which are not so thick. The re¬ 
sult of experience in the anthracite region appears to be 
that the larger the seam the smaller, proportionally, is the 
amount of coal saved. Samuel Gay, Esq., Mine Inspector 
for the Pottsville District, in his report for 1879, makes 
calculations upon two collieries located in the eastern por¬ 
tion of the Mahanoy District. In each case he estimated 
the thickness of the seam at 3> feet and allowed 28’5 per 
cent, for slate, refuse, &c. He estimates the loss in break¬ 
ing down or preparation at 15 per cent. In the case of 
the Stanton colliery he found that but 691,297 tons had 
been saved, while 3,292,7' 3 tons had been lost. At the 
Gilberton colliery, 3,8 )8,244 tons had been lost in mining 
and preparation, while the net product was but 1,244,796 
tons. No reliable figures to represent the percentage that 
should be allowed for loss in mining and preparation can 
be given, as they will vary with every seam and with the 
topographical character of each lease. 

Mr. Joseph S. Harris, Superintendent of the Central 
Railroad of New Jersey, in his report to the Receivers of 
the Philadelphia & Reading Coal & Iron Company upon 
the value of their lands, estimates that 27 per cent, of the 
contents of all the seams on the company’s estate is all 
that can be shipped. 

Hon. Eckley B. Coxe, of Drifton, Luzerne County, says, 
in the report on “Waste in Mining Anthracite,” issued 
under the auspices of the Geological Survey of Pennsyl- 















vania, in reference to the net product from a tract of a 
little less than 200 acres mined by his firm, the seam not 
being over 10 feet thick. 

The seam is not all worked out in the 200 acres, but 
there are many breasts unfinished, and some parts un¬ 
opened ; and there is much coal to be robbed. The aver¬ 
age yield is at least 10,000 tons per acre—or 1 ton at least 
for 43% cubic feet.” 

Colonel D. P. Brown says of the product from the Mam¬ 
moth seam at Lost Creek, where it is 38 feet thick, that it 
will yield “about 50 per cent, of the seam mined, when the 
whole section of seam is hauled out. If, however, only the 
bottom member of the seam is worked, the yield will be 
about 60 per cent, of the output. When the whole seam is 
wrought the proportion of coal to refuse is as 65 to 36 ; of 
the 65 of coal about one-fifth or 20 per cent, will make 
furnace coal, and 80 per cent, less a breaker waste of 15% 
per cent, will make prepared sizes.” 

Mr. Chester, the General Superintendent of the Lykens 
Valley Company, says concerning their mine waste : 

“While we have some seams from 8 to 10 feet thick, 
where the amount left in as loss does not exceed 12 per 
cent., again we have some seams from 6 to 8 feet thick, 
with from 5 to 10 feet of slate between two seams of coal, 
when the loss in mining is from 25 to 30 per cent., and at 
times the loss is even greater than this where the slate 
between the seams is very loose and the top to the upper 
seam is also poor. The least waste in the mine is in the 
Lykens Valley seam, or in those lying above it and below 
the Mammoth seam, and the next in loss is the twin seams 
in the Shamokin region.” 

Mr. Pratt, of the Geological Survey, thus summarizes 
the data collected on “Breaker Waste :” 

The breaking and screening by hand in the old-fash¬ 
ed way lost 6*28 per cent.; by the present breaker and 
•screens, 15*27 per cent.; so that the breaker is to be held 
chargeable with extra loss over the old style of 9 per cent. 

With reference to waste in the preparation of Anthra¬ 
cite coal, Mr. Joseph S. Harris, who has made experiments 
with the “old style” rollers, or those with cast-iron teeth, 
and the “new style” or those with movable steel teeth in¬ 
serted in a cast-iron body, says, with the “new style” there 
is a direct saving of from 3 to 5% per cent, in breaker 
waste, bringing down the percentage in preparing the 
product of the Baltimore seam to an average of 12 per cent. 


60 


VENTILATION. 


ATMOSPHERIC AIR. 

Atmospheric air is composed of nitrogen gas | (nearly), 
oxygen A, and carbonic acid gas o? combined mechani¬ 
cally, not chemically. 

It has weight, which varies as its density varies, which 
changes with the pressure and the temperature, as indi¬ 
cated by the barometer and thermometer. 

It expands, like all bodies, by contact with heat, a rise 
of temperature increasing its volume. Thus, a bladder 
filled with air bursts if heated, and a draught is produced 
in a furnace or stove by lessening the weight of the air 
which ascends through the pipe or chimney. The rate at 
which the air expands, under a constant pressure, has 
been found by experiment to be of its volume for 
every degree of heat added ; that is, 459 cubic feet of air, 
under steady pressure, becomes 460 feet by being made 
one degree warmer. 

Having weight it also has pressure, and the space it 
occupies at any particular point is proportional to that 
pressure. This is shown by the barometer and by the 
working of suction and forcing pumps, in which the 
mercury is forced by the pressure of the air 29)^ inches 
up a glass tube, and the water is forced up a pipe to a 
height of about 32 or 33 feet. If the tube containing the 
mercury is an inch square, the 29^ inches will weigh 14*47 
pounds, which is the pressure per square inch exerted by 
the atmosphere upon the surface of all matter at that 
level. As the ocean of air that surrounds the earth is 
elastic, the density is greatest at the sea level, which is 
taken as the base in calculations. In ascending a moun¬ 
tain the density becomes less, because there is less air 
above to press or force. In going down a shaft below the 
sea level, the density increases, because the height of the 
column of air above is increased. For every degree 
which the barometer falls, the pressure per square foot is 
lessened more than 70 pounds. This will more clearly ap¬ 
pear from the following table, which has been computed 
by the rule : 

Height of barometer in inches X *4908 (the weight of a 
cubic inch of mercury) = pressure per square inch in 
pounds. 



61 


TABLE OF THE PRESSURE OF AIR AT DIFFERENT 
HEIGHTS OF THE BAROMETER. 


Height ot barometer, 
in inches. 

Pressure per sq. in. 
in pounds. 

Pressure per sq. ft* 
in pounds. 

27-0 . 

. 13 25 . 

1908-23 

27*25 . 

. 13-37 . 

1925-89 

27-5 . 

. 13*49 .. 

. 1943-56 

27-75 . 

. 13-61 . 

1961*23 

28-0 . 

. 13-74 . 

1978*90 

28-25 . 

. 13-86 . 

1996-56 

28-5 . 

. 13-98 

2014-24 

28-75 . 

. 14T1 . 

2031-91 

29-0 . 

. 14-23 . 

2049-58 

29-25 . 

. 14-35 . 

2067-24 

29-5 . 

. 14-47 . 

2084-91 ‘ 

29-75 . 

. 14-60 . 

... . 2102-58 

30-0 . 

. 14-72 

2120-25 

30-25 . 

. 14*84 . 

2137-92 

30-5 . 

. 14-96 . 

2155-59 

30*75 . 

. 15-09 . 

2173*26 

31*0 . 

. 15-21 . 

. 2190-93 


The mercury falls about one-tenth of an inch for every 
90 feet of elevation gained, and the apx>roximate height 
of mountains and depth of shafts may therefore be found 
without actual measurement. 


NATURAL VENTILATION. 

Injorderjto] understand the theory of natural ventila¬ 
tion, it must be remembered that the height of the at¬ 
mosphere does not follow the undulations of the earth’s 
surface, but that its outer edge is everywhere equi-distant 
from the earth’s centre, and that if it is 50 miles high from 
the bottom of a valley it will only be 47 miles high from 
the summit of a neighboring mountain which is 3 miles 
high ; from Which it follows that the pressure at the sum¬ 
mit of the mountain is always less than it is at the bottom 
of the valley. Hence, if two shafts are sunk from differ¬ 
ent surface levels to the same level of a seam and-are con¬ 
nected by an air-way, and there is a difference in the tem¬ 
perature of the air inside and outside of the mine, there 





































G2 


will be a current of air created, because the density of the 
columns of air in the two shafts will differ. 




To illustrate this, let A B be a shaft 100 feet deep and 
C D another shaft 200 feet deep, connected at the bottom 
by the heading B D. Suppose the air inside to be the 
warmest, as in winter, and for example let the air inside 
weigh one-half ounce per foot of shaft per square yard of 
section, and the outside air weigh three-fourths of an 
ounce for the same bulk ; then the relation between the 
two shafts would stand thus : 

Shallow shaft, 100 feet at one-half ounce per foot 50 oz. 
Outside column from A to E at three-fourths ounce 


per foot and 100 feet equal. . 75 oz. 

Total. 125 oz. 

Deep shaft, 200 feet at one-half ounce per foot. 100 “ 

Difference . 25 oz. 


The balance in favor of the shallow shaft, 25 ounces, 
will make the shallow shaft the downcast by* a pressure 
equal to 25 ounces per square yard of section. If the tem¬ 
perature outside were the highest as in summer, this result 
would be reversed. The difference of weight between the 
air in the deeper shaft from F to C and the imaginary col¬ 
umn A E is the pressure producing ventilation, 



















In the case of a drift driven into the side of a hill with 
an air shaft opened to its summit under similar condi¬ 
tions, the same results are produced. The difference in 
the weight of the air in the shaft and of an imaginary 
column in the open air, from the mouth of the drift to the 
level of the top of the shaft, is the pressure producing 
ventilation. In winter, when the temperature inside the 
drift is warmer than the air outside, the current will be up 
the shaft, but in summer, when the outer air is the warmer, 
the current will be reversed, and the direction will be out 
the drift. When the temperatures inside and outside are 
equal there will be no current. Natural ventilation, on ac¬ 
count of its feebleness and liability to derangement by 
changes in the temperature of the atmosphere at the sur¬ 
face, is inadequate for operations of considerable extent, 
and recourse must be had to artificial ventilation. 


FURNACE VENTILATION. 


The object of a ventilating furnace is to strengthen the 
natural current, which it does by imparting additional heat 
to the upcast column, and so reducing its density When 
air is heated by contact with the fire, it is lightened and is 
no longer able to resist the pressure of the colder air be¬ 
hind it. The higher the temperature is raised, the greater 
the velocity of the current, aud the larger the quantity of 
air obtained. 

The air after passing the furnace is enlarged in volume, 
and, therefore, the upcast shaft should be larger than the 
downcast, to keep down the velocity of the current. It 
should also be lined and dry, so as to hold the heat. If the 
upcast is cold and wet, the larger it is the greater will be 
its cooling surface, and under such circumstances the up¬ 
cast shaft should not be too large If the return current of 
a mine is loaded with fire-damp, or black damp, it should 
not be passed through the furnace, as the one may explode 
and the other partially extinguish the fire. In such cases, 
the current is carried over the furnace to the heated upcast 
in a “dumb drift,” which enters the upcast shaft about 50 
feet above the furnace ; the furnace being fed by a sepa¬ 
rate split from the surface. The furnace should be located 



64 


about 50 yards from the upcast shaft, and the furnace 
drift should rise 1 in 6 from the furnace to the shaft In 
practice the amount of air passing varies from 4000 
to 8000 cubic feet per minute for every foot breadth of 
bars. 

All other things being equal, the amount of air obtained 
varies as the square root of the depth of the shaft. 

To illustrate one of the methods of ascertaining the 
amount of ventilation obtained with a furnace, in the fol¬ 
lowing diagram let AB and CD be two shafts, each 459 feet 
deep and 10 ft. by 10 ft. connected by the air-way DB of 
the same size and length as either of the shafts. Let F 
represent location of the furnace. 



Let the temperature of the downcast and air-way be 50°, 
and the average temperature of the upcast be 100°, then 
the furnace will have raised the upcast temperature 50°, 
and as the shaft is 459 feet deep and 459 feet of air expand 
one foot for every degree of heat added to it, it follows 
that the furnace having added 50°, will have expanded the 
upcast column of air 50 feet, or, to put it more plainly, 
the furnace has forced a quantity of air out at the top of 
the upcast equal to what would fill 0 feet of the shaft at a 
temperature of 100°. 

To find the weight of this column of 50 feet, first find 
the weight of one foot of air at 100°, and as this varies 
with the pressure, as shown by a barometer, suppose the 









pressure equal to 30 inches of mercury ; then find the 
weight by the formula : • 

1*32529 X 30 B 

--= ’0711246 lbs. = weight of one foot. 

459 + 100° 

As *0711246 pounds is the weight of one foot at 100°, 50 
times that amount will be the weight of the column. 
'0711246 
50 


3*5562300 = weight of 50 ft. column. 

Therefore a pressure of a little over three and one-half 
pounds per square foot is producing the ventilating current 
under these conditions. 

Having found the pressure, now find the rubbing surface 
presented to the air, in both shafts and air-way, so as to get 
at the resistance which the pressure has to overcome. Each 
shaft 10 feet by 10 feet = 100 feet area, and the four sides, 
10 feet each, make 40 feet around each shaft and air-way. 
This is the perimeter, which, multiplied by the length, 
gives the rubbing surface : 

Depth, 459 feet 
Perimeter, 40 


Rubbing surface 18,360 square feet in each, and, as all 
three are one size, three times this quantity is the whole 
rubbing surface : 

18,360 

3 


55,080 feet = total rubbing surface. 

The next factor required is the co-efficient of friction ; 
that is, the pressure required to overcome the resistance of 
the air in rubbing against the surface of the passages of a 
mine exposed to the current. This is got by experiment, 
and has been found to vary with the character of the sur¬ 
faces exposed to the current. Most authorities use the co¬ 
efficient *0000000217 pounds pressure per square foot of 
area of air passage for every square foot of rubbing sur¬ 
face exposed to the current moving at the rate of one lineal 
foot per minute 

If the pressure per square foot is multiplied by the area, 
the product will be the total pressure, = 355"623 pounds, 
and, if the rubbing surface is multiplied by the co-efficient 






66 


of friction, the product will be the pressure required to 
overcome the friction at a velocity' of one foot per minute 
= ’0011952360 pounds. As the resistance is in proportion 
to the square of the velocity, if the whole pressure is di¬ 
vided by the pressure necessary to overcome the friction at 
a velocity of one foot per minute, the result will be the square 
of the velocity, the square root of which is the velocity 
itself. 

355*623 

-= 297,533 

•0011952360 

and -|/297,533 =545 feet, the velocity per minute. The 
velocity multiplied by the area of the air-way gives the 
quantity passing: 

Velocity 545 

100 


54,500 cubic feet. 

This is the work of a furnace under these conditions 
against friction. If there was no friction to be taken into 
consideration, the result would be much greater. 

The power obtained by furnace ventilation is measured 
by the difference between the weight of the air in the down¬ 
cast and upcast shafts. The length of the column in the 
downcast shaft, which would be equal, in weight, to the 
difference of the weight of the air in the two shafts, is called 
the motive column. 

The motive column is usually found by the formula : 

Let M = motive column, 

T = temperature of upcast, 
t == “ “ downcast, 

D = depth of downcast: 

T — t 

and then M = D- 

T + 459 

In the present case it may be found by dividing the pres¬ 
sure per square foot, 3*55623 pounds, by the weight of one 
foot of the downcast air column, which, found by the for¬ 
mula already given, is *0781113 pounds. The pressure per 
square foot divided by this —.45*52 feet, the length of the 
motive column. 

Under these circumstances, then, the air in the downcast 
would balance that of the upcast with a column 45 52 feet 
shorter than that in the upcast. This may be taken to be a 






67 


vacuum The theoretical velocity of air in rushing into a 
vacuum is the same as the velocity that a falling body would 
attain at a depth represented by the length of the vacuum, 
or the velocity is 8 times the square root. In this case it 

would be 8/45*52 = / 45*52 X 8 = 53*968 feet per sec¬ 
ond, or 53*968 X 60 — 3,238*08 feet per minute, or 3,238 08 
X 100 = 323,808 cubic feet for the whole air-way. The 
actual current secured, therefore, is much smaller than the 
theoretical result, owing to the resistances the air meets 
with in its passage ; the amount of ventilation obtained 
from the motive column depending on the length and sec¬ 
tional areas of the air-ways. 


FRICTION OF AIR IN MINES. 

The friction of air in mines is according to certain laws? 
some of which have been explained as follows by Inspector 
Mauchline, in a paper real before the Mining Institute of 
Pennsylvania : 

Friction is produced by something rubbing against some¬ 
thing else, and friction in ventilation is the result of the 
air current rubbing against the surface of the passages 
through which it is moving. 


A B 



Fig 1. 


■ When the barometer reads 30 inches the pressure on all 
surfaces exposed to the air is 2120*2") pounds per square 
foot. In ligure 1, let AB represent an air-way, 4 feet wide, 
4 feet high, and 1500 feet in length The amount of sur¬ 
face in this air-way against which the air presses as it 
moves along is 4+4-j-4-)-4 16 feet for each foot of its 

length, and as it is 1500 feet long—the total amount of 
pressing surface will be 16 times 1500 or 24,000 square feet. 
As the pressure per square foot, as before stated, is 2120*25 
pounds, the total pressure on this air-way will be 24,000 













68 


times 2120*25 or 5,128,600,000 pounds, or 25,443 tons. 

If an air-way only 4 feet high, 4 feet wide, and 1500 feet 
long bears a pressure of 25,443 tons, it is not difficult to see 
where friction comes from. 

Friction is the result of the air which exerts the great 
pressure just shown, rubbing against the surfaces of the 
air-ways, and it necessarily follows that it will increase or 
decrease as the surface of the air-ways is increased or de¬ 
creased, providing the velocity at which the air is passing 
remains the same—that is, the friction is doubled when the 
surface of the air-ways is doubled, and it follows also that 
if the rubbing surface is doubled, the friction doubled, and 
the distance doubled that the air must pass over, that the 
total pressure putting the air in motion must also be doubled 
to produce the same velocity of the air column and to 
furnish the same quantity of air. Hence, if a given pres¬ 
sure is moving air in an air-way 500 yards long, and the air¬ 
way is extended to 1000 yards in length, the resisting sur¬ 
face will be doubled, the length the air has to pass will be 
doubled, and the pressure will also have to be doubled to 
maintain the same velocity and quantity. 

This leads to the consideration of another condition as 
regards the extent of the resisting surface. In ventilation, 
pressure is measured by an instrument known as the water 
gauge, which is a measure of the difference of the density 
of the intake and return air, and consequently is a measure 
of the amount of pressure putting the air in circulation; 
that is, when an exhausting machine is used, it is a measure 
of how much less pressure is on the outlet than on the in¬ 
let, and when a forcing machine is used, of how much more 
pressure there is on the inlet than on the outlet. In speak¬ 
ing of pressure the terms are used which express its force 
on every square foot of the area of the air-way. 



Fig. 2. 






69 


□In the case of two air-ways of 
unequal area but of equal rub¬ 
bing surface—the smaller one 
can be so much longer as to 
make up the difference—with 
the same total pressure the ve¬ 
locity will be the same, as both 
present the same resistance, but 
the total pressure spread over 
the larger one will be less per 
square foot than on the small 
one and the quantity or volume 
proportion to their areas. This 
principle may be illustrated by figures 2 and 3. In figure 
2, let A B be an air-way 4 feet high and 4 feet wide, and 
1000 yards long ; then the sum of its four sides is 16 feet, 
and it will have 16 square feet of rubbing surface for every 
foot of its length, or 48,000 square feet. 

In figure 3 let the air-way C D be 8 feet high, 8 feet wide, 
and 500 yards long ; then the sum of its four sides will be 
32 and it will have 32 square feet of rubbing surface for 
each foot of its length, or 48,000 square feet. 

It is thus seen that the friction in both these air-ways is 
alike because their surfaces are equal and to move air in 
either at the same speed will require the same total pres¬ 
sure because the resistance is the same. 

If they are subjected to the same total pressure and the 
pressure upon the large one, the area of which is 64 square 
feet, is 1 pound per square foot, then the pressure upon the 
small one, the area of which is but one-fourth as much as 
that of the larger or 16 square feet, will be 4 pounds per 
square foot. 

Then, as the velocity is the same in both air-ways with 
the same total pressure, while the small air-way is passing 
ten thousand cubic feet, the large one will pass forty thou¬ 
sand cubic feet. Hence, the large air-way will give four 
times as much ventilation as the small one, with one-fourth 
the pressure per square foot, or one-fourth the water gauge, 
although the total pressure is equal for both. 

If the large air-way is made as long as the small one to 
continue to obtain four times as much air, will require one- 
half the pressure per square foot that is on the small air-way 
or twice the total pressure. This is a forcible illustration 
of the great superiority of large air-ways over smaller ones. 



of air obtained will be in 









70 


The next law to consider is that governing friction at 
different velocities. If the pressure is increased, the speed 
of the air column and quantity of air obtained, will also 
be increased, but not in the same proportion. Four times 
the pressure will produce double the quantity ; nine times 
will produce three times the quantity, and sixteen times 
the pressure will give four times the quantity of air, and 
in that proportion. The quantity of air obtained ivill vary 
as the square foot of the pressure applied —the pressure per 
square foot of the area—and the pressure will vary as the 
square of the velocity of the air column or quantity ob¬ 
tained. If the pressure is reduced to one-quarter (3^), the 
quantity obtained will be one-half (34) or the square root 
of (3^)i and if the pressure is reduced to one-ninth (0, the 
quantity obtained will be one-third (34)* an( l that pro¬ 
portion. 

A B 


100 200 300 400 500 600 700800 



It will assist to understand the principle that the pres¬ 
sure required to move air, varies as the square of the ve¬ 
locity of the air current or the quantity obtained, to im¬ 
agine an air-way with something that can be seen moving 
through it. Air is invisible and it is difficult to grasp a con¬ 
ception of its motions. In figure 4, let A B be an air-way four 
feet high, four feet wide, and therefore, of sixteen square 
feet area and eight hundred feet long, divided for illustra¬ 
tion into eight divisions of one hundred feet each, with a 
column of steam moving through it at a velocity of one 
hundred feet per minute. Suppose the pressure putting 
the column of steam through the air-way be two pounds 
to the square foot. Imagine the column of steam to be 
divided into blocks of 1 cubic foot each. It will be no- 















71 


ticed that these blocks (sixteen in number), as represented 
in the mouth of the air-way, in moving through it, rub 
against its sides as follows : 


Block 1 has 2 sides rubbing. 


44 

2 

44 

1 

side 

44 

44 

3 

44 

1 

44 

44 

44 

4 

44 

2 

sides 

44 

44 

8 

44 

1 

side 

44 

44 

12 

44 

1 

44 

44 

44 

16 

44 

2 

sides 

44 

44 

15 

44 

1 

side 

44 

44 

14 

44 

1 

44 

44^ 

44 

13 

44 

2 

sides 

44 

44 

9 

44 

1 

side 

44 

44 

5 

44 

1 

tt 

44 


Total, 

16 

sides 

44 


or 16 square feet. Blocks 6, 7, 10 and 11 have no sides 
rubbing, and, therefore, create no friction. These blocks, 
which move at a velocity of 100 feet per minute, will every 
minute move the length of one division of the air-way and 
rub against 100 feet lineal, or 1600 square feet of rubbing 
surface, and in eight minutes will move the full length and 
rub against 800 feet lineal or 24,000 square feet, the aggre¬ 
gate rubbing surface. Suppose three times the quantity 
of steam is required. This will necessitate moving the 
column three times as fast. If the blocks, then, at a ve¬ 
locity of 100 feet per minute, moved through one division 
of the air-way and rubbed against 100 feet lineal, or 1600 
square feet of rubbing surface, at a velocity of 300 feet 
per minute, they will move through three divisions of the 
air-way and rub against 300 feet lineal, or 4800 square feet 
of rubbing surface. They will thus meet with three times 
the rubbing surface or friction in a minute, and if the 
pressure per square foot was originally 2 pounds, it will 
have to be increased three times and raised to 6 pounds 
per square foot, 2 pounds X 3 = 6 pounds. But there is 
another force that must be taken into consideration. The 
blocks, instead of striking against the rubbing surface 
with a momentum gained from a velocity of 100 feet per 
minute, as in the first instance, strike against it with a 
momentum gained from a velocity of 300 feet per minute, 


72 


Thus, each block will also create a resistance, from the 
greater momentum acquired, three times greater than 
before, and thus require the pres¬ 
sure to be again increased three 
times, and raised from 6 lbs. per 
square foot to 18 lbs.; 6 lbs. X 3 = 
18 lbs., or 9 times the original pres¬ 
sure of 2 lbs. 

From figures 5, 6 and 7 a proper 
conception of the relative pressures 
upon the area of the air-way, made 
necessary by the greater friction 
developed by the changed condi¬ 
tions, may be obtained. 

Figure 5 represents the area of the air-way with a pres¬ 
sure of 2 lbs. per square foot or a total pressure of 2 lbs. 
X 16 = 32 lbs. 


Fig. 6. 

Figure 6 represents the area of the air-way, with the 
pressure per foot increased three times to overcome the 
friction developed in the triple rubbing surface passed 
over in the same time—one minute—which is 6 lbs. per 
square foot, or a total pressure of 6 lbs. X 16 — 96 lbs. 

Figure 7 represents the area of the air-way, with the 
pressure increased three times to overcome the resistance 
due to the triple amount of rubbing surface passed over 
in the same time, and again increased three times to over¬ 
come the friction developed by the blodks striking the 
rubbing surface with three times the momentum attained 
from three times the velocity, or 3 X 3 — 9 times 2 lbs. — 
18 lbs., making a total pressure of 18 lbs. X 16 -= 288 lbs. 
Nine is the square of three, and the pressure , therefore, varies 
as the square of the velocity or quantity obtained. 


18 

18 

18 

18 

18 

18 

18 

18 

18 

18 

18 

18 

18 

18 

18 

18 


Fig. 7. 

























73 


Another and perhaps the most important principle in¬ 
volved in the friction of air in mines, is the relation be¬ 
tween the power expended and the result obtained, or the 
units of work given out and the velocity or quantity of 
air produced. How the pressure applied to each square 
foot of the area is affected by changes in the velocity has 
been explained. It remains to explain how the power of 
units of work given out are affected by the velocity. It 
has been shown that the result or quantity obtained is in 
proportion to tha square root of the pressure, and that 
the resistance or friction developed, is in accordance with 
the square of the velocity or quantity obtainod, as is also, 
as a matter of course, the pressure necessary to overcome it. 

The velocity or amount of air obtained is in proportion 
to the cube root of the power expended, and the power 
necessary is in proportion to the cube of the velocity or 
quantity of air obtained. It may seem strange if a fan 
driven by an engine of ten horse-power produces 10,000 
cubic feet of air per minute, and it is desired to increase 
the quantity of air to 40,000 cubic feet per minute, that it 
will be necessary to obtain an engine of 640 horse-power 
or 64 times larger, but it is nevertheless true 

Before this law can be understood, a proper apprecia¬ 
tion of what is meant by the term power must be had. 
It is of the greatest importance that the difference in the 
meaning between the terms “pressure” and “power,” as 
used in ventilation, be borne in mind. Pressure is the 
force on each square foot of the area of the air-way, which 
is overcoming the resistance, while “power” is this force 
multiplied by the amount of displacement it is producing 
or the result it is- accomplishing in a given time. As ex¬ 
plained in “Mechanics”, work is the product of the force 
multiplied by the displacement it produces in its point of 
application. In this definition the force is supposed to be 
constant, and the point of its application to coincide with 
the direction of the force. In expressing the work done 
by a force, the units of weight lifted through a unit of 
height, as in pounds lifted one foot, called foot-pounds, 
are employed. The rate of working of a machine or the 
‘‘power” it develops is expressed by the units of work done 
in a unit of time as in foot-pounds per minute, or in con¬ 
ventional units called horse-powers. One horse-power is 
equivalent to 33 000 foot-pounds per minute or 33,000 
pounds lifted one foot high in one minute. Thus a ma- 


74 


chine that can raise 12 tons, through a height of 10 feet in 
two minutes, is rather more than 4 horse-powers. This 
may be proved as follows : 12 tons reduced to pounds is 
26,880 pounds, which multiplied by 10 feet gives 268,800 
pounds lifted through one foot or foot-pounds, and divided 
by 2 gives 134,400 pounds lifted through one foot in one 
minute, and this divided by 33,000, the number of foot¬ 
pounds in a horse-power, gives 4*07 horse powers. 

To find the power exerted by a steam engine, the load 
or total pressure on the piston is multiplied by the num¬ 
ber of feet the piston travels with the load. The result 
thus obtained represents the units of work or foot-pounds, 
and divided by 33,000, gives the number of horse-powers. 
On the same principle, when it is desired to find the horse¬ 
powers exerted by a fan in moving a current of air, the 
pressure per square foot, as represented by the difference 
of water level in the two columns of the water gauge re¬ 
duced to pounds, is multiplied by the number of cubic 
feet passing per minute. This result is the units of work 
or foot-pounds, and divided by 33,000 gives the horse¬ 
powers exerted by the fan. 

The water gauge reading simply gives the pressure ex¬ 
pended on each square foot of the area of the air-way, 
and therefore the reason why the product of these two 
factors is the units of work requires explanation. The 
second factor or the quantity of air passing is found by 
multiplying the total area of the air-way by the ve¬ 
locity or the quantity passing per foot per minute. Then 
in the multiplication of the two factors—the water gauge 
reading and the quantity passing per minute—the pres¬ 
sure per square foot is multiplied by the number of square 
feet in the area of the air-way, then by the velocity or the 
length of the air column passing in a minute. This is the 
s ime as if the total pressure had first been found by multi¬ 
plying the water gauge reading reduced to pounds by the 
area of the air-way, and then multiplying the result by 
the velocity or the length of column passing in a minute. 
The total pressure exerted by the fan would then repre¬ 
sent, in the case of an engine, the load on the piston, and 
the length of the air column passed per minute or the ve¬ 
locity would represent the distance or piston speed. This 
may be further illustrated by an example : An air-way 2 
feet high by 2 feet wide is passing 4000 cubic feet of air 
per minute with a pressure of 1 pound; then the units of 


75 


work are by the rule: 


1 

4000 


4000 

foot-pounds per minute. But the area of the air-way is 
2 ft. 

2 ft. 


4 square feet =• area. 

And as the pressure is 1 pound, the total pressure will 
be 4 pounds, and the quantity passing per minute (4000 
cubic feet) divided by the total pressure, 4 pounds, will 
give 1000, the velocity or length of column passing in a 
minute . Then : 1 lb. = Pressure 

4 ----- Area. 

4 = Total pressure. 

1000 = Velocity. 


4000 = foot-pounds per minute or 
the same result. The total pressure represents the weight 
to be lifted and the velocity or length of column passing 
in a minute, the height it is lifted through in a minute, 
and their product is converted into horse-powers by di¬ 
viding it by 33,000. Hence, a fan that is working with 
one inch of water gauge and discharging 33,000 cubic feet 
of air per minute is exerting a little more than 5 theo¬ 
retical horse-powers to overcome the resistance of the air 
at that speed, and if to do this work an engine of 10 horse¬ 
power is required, we know that 50 per cent, is wasted, in 
friction of the machinery and in transmission, between 
the boilers and the result. 


A B 


4^ 




27 

fcs. 

T 

1 

J x 


Fr, 

9 

9 

re 

Po\ 

w$K 


Fia. 8. 

















?6 


This is what is meant by power in ventilation, and that 
the power required varies as the cube of the velocity or 
quantity passing, and the velocity or quantity passing as 
the cube root of the power is demonstrated as follows : In 
figure 8, let A B represent an air-way of four square feet 
area, with a pressure of 1 pound per square foot, and 4 
pounds total pressure, giving 1000 cubic feet of air per 
minute. The units of work found by multiplying the 
pressure by the quantity passing will be 

1000 


1000 = foot-pounds. 

To put three (3) times the quantity through or 3000 
cubic feet per minute, will require three t3^ times the ve¬ 
locity. But it has been shown that three (3) times the ve¬ 
locity will develop nine (9) times the resistance and re¬ 
quire nine (9) times the pressure, or the square of the in¬ 
creased velocity, which is nine (9), to overcome it. Hence, it 
follows that if the velocity is trebled that each pound of 
pressure in the air-way A B will have to be increased to nine 
(9), making a total pressure of 36 pounds. Now as the 
power exerted is found by multiplying the pressure by the 
velocity, this nine (9) times the pressure required to over¬ 
come the resistance must also be multiplied by three (3), 
the ratio of increase of speed. As the new pressure re¬ 
quired is nine (9), or the square of the increased velocity, 
the new power required will be 27, or the cube of the new 
velocity. 

3 = new velocity. 

3 

9 = square of velocity = new pressure. 

3 

27 =cube of velocity =new power. 

In the first instance the units of work were the pressure, 
1 pound, multiplied by the quantity 1000 cubic feet, mak¬ 
ing 1000 foot-pounds per minute. Now the units of work 
are the pressure, 9 pounds, multiplied by the quantity, 
3000 cubic feet, making 27,000 foot pounds per minute; 
so that the increased velocity has been cubed, giving 27 
times the original power or foot-pounds per minute. And 
if the power increases as the cube of the velocity, as a 



77 


matter of course the velocity or quantity of air obtained 
by different powers will vary according to their cube roots. 
Therefore, in case a furnace is used in ventilating, it will 
require eight (8) times the coal to double the quantity of 
air, twenty-seven (27) times to treble it, sixty-four (64) 
times to quadruple it, and so on in that proportion, and if 
a fan is used, the increase of coal necessary to raise steam 
will be in the same ratio, as the same law controls in both 
cases. The law seems complicated, but it is only the sim¬ 
ple law of mechanics by which the power of a steam en¬ 
gine is found, viz : the load or resistance multiplied by the 
volume passing or distance traveled in a minute or any 
unit of time. 

Mr. J. J. Atkinson, in his admirable work on “Friction 
of Air in Mines,” says with regard to the co-efficient of 
friction that “for a velocity in the air of 1000 feet per 
minute, the friction is equal to 0*26881 feet of jur column 
of the same density as the flowing air, which is equal to a 
pressure, with air at 32°, of 0*0217 pounds per square foot 
of area of section. Calling this the co-efficient of fric¬ 
tion, we have the following rules with respect to the fric¬ 
tion of air in mines. 

p a 

Total pressure, p a = k s v 2 . Rubbing surface, s =- 

k v 2 


p a 

Square of velocity, v 2 - - 

k s 
p a 

Co-efficient of friction, k= - 

s v 2 
k s v 2 

Pressure per foot, p =- 

a 

k s v 2 

Area of section, a —- 

P 

Where p = pressure per square foot; a = sectional area 
in feet; s = the area of rubbing surface exposed to the 
air ; v = the velocity of the air in thousands of feet per 
minute, 1000 feet per minute being taken as the unit of 
velocity ; k, the co-efficient of friction in the same terms 
or unit as p is taken. 

The co-efficient varies with the nature of the rubbing 



78 


surface, and consequently may be different in the different 
air-passages of the same mine. The following plan may 
be adopted for ascertaining the friction of air in a pas¬ 
sage : Place a gutta-percha tube of small section along 
the portion of the gallery of the friction of which it is de¬ 
sired to know ; close the end of the tube fixed opposite to 
the current, and place a water gauge on the closure, and 
the instrument will then show the difference of pressure 
at the two extremities of the tube. Then the water gauge 
multiplied by 5*2 = p in pounds. 


SPLITTING THE CURRENT. 

By splitting the air current, the ventilating power is 
economized and greater safety in the mines secured. The 
former wi# appear from what has already been said with 
regard to friction of air in mines. Greater safety is se¬ 
cured because a larger amount of ventilation is obtained 
with the same power, and also because the fire-damp given 
off from one set of workings is not passed through the 
others, but directly to the returns, thereby diminishing the 
liability of its ignition ; and even should an explosion oc¬ 
cur its effects are confined chiefly to the workings venti¬ 
lated by the split in question. A minor advantage is that 
the velocity of the air current can be made much less, and 
there is less liability of the flame being forced through 
the gauze of the safety lamp, which happens with a ve¬ 
locity over 6 feet per second. Of course, the speed of the 
current in the main intake and returns should not be lim¬ 
ited by the above.; there will be little liability of the pres¬ 
ence of an explosive mixture in the intake, and special 
rules and precautions can be taken at all times with refer¬ 
ence to traveling in and the use of lights in the returns. 

The sub-division of the air current may be carried too 
far, for should the current be too weak it will fail to cause 
the rapid mechanical mixture of the light carburetted hy¬ 
drogen with the current, which is necessary to prevent a 
lodgment of gas in the higher parts of the workings, since 
diffusion acts too slowly to be of practical use. Since the 
air currents will pass through the various splits in such a 
manner that the total resistance met with is a minimum, 
the division should be so effected that the amount passing 
through each split, and the resistance met with in each 



1 9 


split, are the sam6. Although this result can only be at j 
tained in an approximate manner, still a great economy 
will be attained if this aim is kept in view in laying out 
the various workings, or rather in dividing the current 
among the workings. 


ASCENSIONAL VENTILATION. 

By ascensional ventilation is meant the taking of the in¬ 
take current at once to the lowest level in the mine, and 
thence leading it through the workings, always in an as¬ 
cending direction. This principle is only applicable where 
the seams have a considerable inclination. It is based 
upon two considerations. First —The intake current is 
supposed to be always cooler than the return ; its temper¬ 
ature is gradually raised as it passes through the workings. 
The air current has, therefore, a natural tendency to as¬ 
cend whilst passing through the workings, and by making 
the direction of the current to coincide with this natural 
tendency the current is materially assisted by the latter, 
whilst in the reverse direction it would be opposed by it. 
Second —In mines containing fire-damp, this being lighter 
than the air, it will tend to rise, and if the direction of the 
air current is ascensional, this tendency will help the air 
current to remove it ; whilst, on the other hand, if the di¬ 
rection of the current be downward, the natural tendency 
of the air to rise will oppose its removal by the air current. 

In highly inclined seams, where there are numerous con¬ 
nections between the levels, this principle must be care¬ 
fully observed, or there will be a great loss of air. Ex¬ 
haustive experiments have been made in Belgium to ascer¬ 
tain the advantage of ascensional ventilation, and it has 
been demonstrated that the loss of air, where attention is 
not paid to it, is from 33 to 50 per cent. 


MECHANICAL VENTILATORS. 

Centrifugal fans are now almost exclusively used for 
ventilators in this country. The Guibal pattern are the 
most popular here, as they are in England, but quite a 
number of the Waddle and the Champion are also in use. 
The Guibal fan is made large and runs at a moderate speed. 
The blades are inclined backwards, and the tips are curved 




80 


so as to be radial with the circumference. The casing has 
openings at the sides and an expanding chimney leading 
from the circumference. A vacuum is created at the centre 
by the revolving blades, which causes the current to pass 
through the openings at the sides, thence over the blades 
and out through the chimney. At the point where the air 
leaves the blades, an adjustable shutter is placed, by means 
of which the extent of the opening to the chimney is regu¬ 
lated. The Waddle fan receives its air at the centre of one 
side only, and delivers the air at the circumference. The 
passages for air from the centre to circumference are 
nicely curved, and have a gradually decreasing section, so 
that the velocity of rotation at any distance from the 
centre, multiplied by the sectional area at that distance, 
are constant. By this arrangement it is intended that the 
velocity of the air through the fan should be as uniform 
as possible, and the fan be kept filled to its circumference 
with issuing air, and the possibility of re-entries of air 
from the external atmosphere be prevented. The blades 
are inclined backwards and the whole structure revolves. 
The Champion is a double fan, working on one shaft, with 
the casing so arranged that it can be converted from an 
exhauster to a blower, or vice versa , without stopping or 
changing the motion. 

Mine Inspector Gay, in a paper read before' the Mining 
Institute of Pennsylvania, makes the following sugges¬ 
tions as to the construction of fans : 

The most efficient pattern should be selected ; they should 
be built of iron, and the engines should be vertical, well- 
proportioned, and connected directly with the fan-shaft. 

There should be an ample amount of power, so that 
when sixty revolutions of the fan per minute will furnish 
an adequate supply of air for the ordinary ventilation of 
the mine, it can be immediately increased to one hundred 
and twenty revolutions per minute, if required. 

The top of the upcast should be provided with doors so 
arranged that in the event of an explosion they will act as 
a safety valve, relieving the ventilating machinery from 
a sudden shock. It is of the greatest importance that 
after an accident of this character the current be restored 
to its usual condition as quickly as possible, and by this 
arrangement the machinery will, in most instances, be se¬ 
cured from injury. 

They should be so constructed that the currents can be 


81 


reversed, if desired, with little delay, so that in the winter 
months the slopes or shafts which in the warm months are 
downcasts, can be converted into upcasts, thereby freeing 
them from ice. If the fan is acting as an exhaust and a 
fire occurs about the top of the hoisting shaft or slope, it 
being the downcast, the smoke .and heat are carried into 
the workings. This can be prevented by stopping the fan, 
but if the mine is a fiery one, there will be great danger of 
gas accumulating. If the ventilator can be quickly re¬ 
versed these dangers can be avoided. 

The machinery should be provided with an indicator 
that will show the number of revolutions made by the fan 
during 24 hours, a record of which can be made every 
evening. Many accidents have occurred through persons 
in charge of ventilating machinery at night not attending 
to their duties, and yet there have been no means of posi¬ 
tively ascertaining such to be the fact. 


CENTRIFUGAL FANS. 

The following rules, which are applicable to small blow 
ers for foundries and blacksmiths’ fires, may be useful for 
approximating fans of large diameter : 

D Diameter of fan. 

V = Velocity of tips of blades in feet per second. 

P = Pressure in pounds per square foot. 

V = t/T* X 676 
V 2 

P =- 

676 

PROPORTIONS OF FANS. 


Length of vanes 


Width of vanes 


Diameter of inlet 


D 

4 

D 

4 

D 

2 





82 


MEASUREMENT OF VENTILATION. 

Three methods have been employed for the purpose of 
ascertaining the velocities of the currents and the quanti¬ 
ties of air circulating in mines. 

1. Traveling at the same velocity as the current and noting 
the distance passed over in a unit of time. —This was a very 
primitive mode, but no doubt when used it gave a fair ap¬ 
proximation to the truth ; for recent experiments have 
proved that it admitted of great accuracy for velocities up 
to 400 feet per minute. It was open to many objections, 
and would be utterly unsuited to the large mines now ex¬ 
isting, since it would be impossible to walk as quickly as the 
currents travel in the principle splits, and running is not a 
sufficiently steady pace for the purpose. The process was 
as follows : Choice was made of a part of the gallery form¬ 
ing the air-way, having as uniform sectional dimensions as 
could be found, and, after measuring off a distance of a 
hundred or a hundred and fifty yards in length, the opera¬ 
tor took a lighted candle, and walked in the direction of 
the current, fully exposing the flame to its influence, but 
taking care to move at such a rate that the flame would 
burn in an upright position without being deflected from 
the vertical either by the current or by the progress of the 
person carrying it. The time required to traverse the dis¬ 
tance measured off being carefully noted by a seconds 
watch, the average rate of walking was thereby deter¬ 
mined, and three or four trials served to give the assumed 
velocity of the air-current. This, multiplied by the aver¬ 
age sectional area of the part of the air-way selected for 
experiment, was taken to represent the quantity of air 
passing in the unit of time. 

2. Determining from observation the rate at ivhich small 
floating particles art carried along by the current , and as¬ 
suming their velocities to be identical with that of the air- 
current itself. —Until recently, observations of the velocity 
of the smoke from an exploded charge of gunpowder, in a 
part of the gallery of nearly uniform sectional area, were 
the means most generally adopted in coal mines for ascer¬ 
taining the velocity of air-currents. They are still con¬ 
siderably used, and, so far as regards shaft velocities, they 
remain the only method. For this purpose an even part 
of the road should be selected, from 50 to 100 feet in 
length, and its cubical contents in feet ascertained. Then 


83 


let off a flash of gunpowder at the windward end of the 
channel, and observe the number of seconds the smoke is 
in passing to the other end. Then say, as the time (in 
seconds) in passing is to the cubic area, so is 60 seconds to 
the number of cubic feet passing per minute. 

Example : Length of channel selected, 50 feet ; height, 
7 feet; width, 7 feet; time in passing, 8 seconds. What is 
the amount of air ? 

50X7X7=2450 cubic feet, area; then as 8 : 2450 :: 60 : 
18,375 cubic feet per minute. 

Mr. F. G. Clemens, M. E., in a paper read before the 
May (1881) meeting of the Mining Institute of Pennsyl¬ 
vania, laid down the following rules for the use of gun¬ 
powder in ascertaining the velocity of air-currehts in 
mines : First .—Always use one cubic inch of gunpowder. 
Second .—The velocity of the current should never be less 
than 100 feet a minute nor exceed 500 feet a minute. 
Third .—The time should not be less than 12 seconds nor 
exceed 30 seconds. Fourth .—Explode the gunpowder 10 
feet to the windward of the first mark. Therefore, in slow 
currents of from 100 to 250 feet per minute velocity, the 
distance to be taken over which the smoke passes will be 
50 feet ; and for the higher velocities of from 250 to 500 
feet the distance will be increased to 100 feet. 

3. With the Anemometer .—This apparatus is of various 
forms and may be divided into three classes. 

Those having vanes or wands made to revolve by the cur¬ 
rent of air impinging upon them, the rate at which they 
revolve being indicated by pointers on dials forming a part 
of the instrument. They include Biram’s and others. 

Instruments which are affected by the force or impulse 
of the wind, without being subjected to any continuous 
revolving motion. These include Dr. Lind’s and others. 

Those of a more complex character, such as Leslie’s. 

Biram’s anemometers is in general use in this country. 
Each revolution of the vanes, which is registered on the 
dial plate, corresponds to one foot in the linear motion of 
the air. Then, if the velocity per minute is multiplied by 
the sectional area of the channel in which the anemometer 
is placed, the result is the number of cubic feet of air 
passing per minute. 

These instruments do not register the actual velocity of 
the air, especially in feeble air currents, but the result is so 
nearly correct that they answer all purposes. A certain 
force of air is required to overcome the friction and put 


the instrument in motion. The force varies with each and 
every instrument. Some anemometers will continue to 
revolve in a current as low as 30 feet a minute ; but with 
the most of them a velocity of 50 feet is required, and 40 
feet is recommended as an average allowance to be 
made to start them. The formula used for true veloci¬ 
ties is : Y=*97R+40. 

V=True velocity. 

R=Recorded revolutions. 

40=Feet allowed to start anemometer. 

The following rules are given for every day use: 

First. Use the recorded revolutions of the anemometer 
as correct; do not bother with any formula. 

Second. Measure always at the same time of day, say 
noon, when the men are at dinner, the cars at rest, the 
doors most likely shut, and the ventilation moving along 
its proper channels. 

Third. Always use the same places in the air-ways and 
see that they are as regular and straight as possible. 

Fourth. Take the record at several points, say at top, 
bottom and centre, and the two sides, and use the average 
of these records for the velocity of the current. 

The following rules are used at some of the collieries in.the 
North of England, and are printed in the front of the book, 
carried by the person whose duty it is to measure the air : 

Rule.—Sectional area to be entered at the time of each 
measurement. Height X width = area. 

The person measuring must hold the anemometer at 
arm’s length in front of his body, and keep the face of the 
fan square to the current of air, and keep moving it slowly 
as per the dotted line drawn within the figure below : 











85 


[Figure showing a section of a place at which the air is 
measured, the dotted line to illustrate movements made by 
the anemometer.] 

The index figures of the anemometer to be entered con¬ 
tinuously : 

1. Take;the velocity for one minute and make complete 
entry. 

2. Take the velocity for two minutes and divide by two; 
should the average be near the first reading, enter the aver¬ 
age as the velocity. 

In all cases add or substract, as the case requires, the 
correction due to the instrument. 

One page of the book to be used for each measurement. 
Date and time of day must always be written at the top of 
the page, and the person measuring must sign his name at 
the last measurement. 


TO FIND THE AREA OF DIFFERENT FORMS OF 
AIR-WAYS. 


Base X Height = Area. 



J Base X Height = Area. 



J sum of two parallel Sides X 
Height = Area. 


O 

o 


Circumference 


Diameter X 3*1416 = Circumference. 


3*1416 


Diameter. 


Diameter 2 X *7854 =Area. 

Side of an equal Square = Diameter X ‘8862. 










TO FIND THE QUANTITY OF AIR BY THE 
THERMOMETER. 

Temperature of air (£) on the outside of the current be¬ 
ing very accurately taken, raise the temperature of the 
thermometer 10° above t, and then observe the number of 
seconds s which elapse while the thermometer exposed to 
the free current of air cools to 5° of the 10°, then 
c 

— — feet per second velocity, 
s 2 

c being a constant peculiar to the instrument; in one case, 
for example, it was 16,000. Let the bulb be very clear. 

THE WATER GAUGE 

Is used to ascertain the “drag” or resistance to the air in 
a mine. The resistance is found by taking the difference 
of density between the intake and return air. This may 
be done by placing the water gauge through a door erected 
in a passage connecting the road along which the fresh 
air is entering the mine and the road by which the foul 
air is returning. The glass tube being open at each ex¬ 
tremity, the difference of the water-level in the two 
branches of the tube represents the difference of density 
of the intake and return air. The weight of a square foot 
of water one inch deep equals 5*2 pounds; therefore, for 
every inch there is in difference between the two branches 
of the tube there will be 5’2 pounds of “drag” or resistance 
to each square foot of the air-way; and to find the horse¬ 
power of the ventilation, multiply the quantity of air 
passing per minute by the “drag,” and again by 5’2, and 
divide by 33,000. 

Example: 

What is the horse-power expended when the ventilating 
current measures 33,000 cubic feet per minute, and the 
water gauge is 0*65 ? 

33,000X0-65X5*2 

- 3-07 H. P. 

33,000 

The quantity of air passing in a mine is according to 
the square root of the water gauge, which is the measure 
of the pressure of the ventilation in force. The following 
figures give the square root of the water gauge for every 



87 


one tenth of an inch from half an inch to three inches, and 
the quantity of air that will pass for each height of the 
water gauge, supposing 10,000 cubic feet pass when it 
stands at one inch, the air-courses remaining in the same 
condition : 


W. G. 

Square root 
of W. G. 

Quan¬ 

tity. 

W. G. 

Square root 
of W. G. 

Quan¬ 

tity. 

*5 

*7071 

7,071 

1*8 

1*3416 

13,416 

*6 

*7745 

7,745 

1*9 

1*3784 

13,784 

*7 

*8366 

8,366 

2* 

1*1142 

14,142 

*8 

*8944 

8,944 

2*1 

1*4491 

14,491 

*9 

*9486 

9,486 

2*2 

1*4832 

14,832 

1* 

1* 

10,000 

2*3 

1*5165 

15,165 

1*1 

1-0488 

10,488 

2*4 

1*5491 

15,491 

1*2 

1*0954 

10,954 

2*5 

1*5811 

15,811 

1*3 

1*1401 

11,401 

2*6 

1*6144 

16,144 

1*4 

1*1832 

11,832 

2*7 

1*6413 

16,431 

1*5 

1*2247 

12,247 

2*8 

1*6733 

16,733 

1*6 

1*2649 

12,649 

2*9 

1*7029 

17,029 

1*7 

1*3038 

13,038 

3*0 

1*7320 

17.320 


If it be required to know the quantity that will pass 
under other circumstances it may be found by rule of 
three. Thus supposing 20,000 feet of air pass with a water 
gauge of 1 y z inches, what quantity will circulate with 234 
inches of water gauge ? The square root of 134 = 1*2247 
and of 234 = 1*5811; then we say : 

As 1*2247 : 20,000 :: 1*5811 : 25,820, the quantity required. 


GASES MET WITH IN MINES. 

NITBOGEN GAS. 

Nitrogen gas is lighter than air under the same temper¬ 
ature and pressure. The specific gravity of air being 
taken as 1000, that of nitrogen is 97T37, so that 1000 cubic 
feet of air weigh 80*728 pounds, and 1000 cubic feet of nit¬ 
rogen 78*416 pounds, and one foot of air weighs 0*080728 
pounds at 32° and 14*7 pounds pressure per square inch, 
one foot of nitrogen, under same conditions, weighing 
0*0784167 pounds. Nitrogen gas has neither color, taste, 
nor smell, will not support life nor combustion, but destroys 
life and extinguishes lights. Its use is to dilute the 
oxygen of the atmosphere, and render it fit for respiration. 




88 


OXYGEN GAS. 

Oxygen forms 21 per cent, by volume, and 23 per cent, 
by weight, or more than one-fifth of atmospheric air. Its 
specific gravity is 1105*63, that of air being 1000. At a 
temperature of 32° and pressure of 14*7 pounds per square 
inch, 1000 feet weigh 89*255 pounds ; air, same conditions, 
80*728 pounds. Oxygen has neither color, taste, nor 
smell ; red-hot wire will burn brilliantly in it, and animals 
die through excess of vital action. 

CARBONIC ACID GAS—BLACK DAMP. 

This gas is composed of oxygen and carbon. Its chem¬ 
ical composition is : 

By By By 

atoms. weight. volume. 


Oxygen. 2 72*73 per ct. 1 

Carbon. 1 27*27 “ 1 


1 100*00 1 condensed. 

Carbonic acid gas is a poisonous mixture, although it 
contains nearly 3 out of 4 by weight of oxygen (the life¬ 
supporting element). It is dangerous to life to breathe 
air containing from 10 to 12 per cent of it. According to 
Frieberg, conditions can exist when miners will be struck 
down before the light is extinguished, although lights will 
not burn in air mixed with one-tenth of it. The breathing 
of this gas acts like a narcotic poison ; first excitiag, then 
producing paralysis, and at last, by satiety, death. It is, 
therefore, similar to chloroform. Its specific gravity is 
1528*01, that of air being 1000. At a temperature of 32° 
and pressure of 14*7 pounds per square inch, 1000 cubic 
feet of carbonic acid gas weigh 123*353 pounds. Air, same 
conditions, 80*728. As it is rather more than one and one- 
half times as heavy as common air, it is always found in 
the lowest levels of mines, or next the floor, except where 
displaced by currents or expanded by heat. 

It is called by the miners “black-damp,” “stythe,” 
“choke-damp,” <fcc. It is frequently met with ; in fact, 
it is not absent in any mine where the air is not continu¬ 
ally renewed. It is produced in all collieries by the breath 
of the workmen (each man exhales 6*3 gallons of this gas 
hourly), the burning of lights, the explosion of powder, 
the fermentation of animal and vegetable substances, &c. 





89 


HiDBOGEN GAS. 

Hydrogen has neither color, taste nor smell, and is not 
a supporter of combustion. If a light be plunged into a 
jar of it, it is extinguished. When mixed with common 
air or pure oxygen, it is highly explosive. Its specific 
gravity is 0*06927, air being 1. It is the lightest of all the 
gases. 

CABBUBETED HYDBOGEN GAS. 

Carbureted hydrogen gas is chemically composed of : 

By By By 


atoms. weight. volume. 

Hydrogen. 2 24*6 per ct. 2 

Carbon . 1 75-4 “ 1 


1 100*0 “ 1 condensed. 

At a temperature of 32°, and under pressure of 14-7 
pounds per square inch, 1000 cubic feet of it weigh 45*368 
pounds ; air, same conditions, 80*728 pounds ; so that it is 
rather more than one-half as heavy as an equal volume of 
air under the same conditions. 

FIBE-DAMP. 

Fire-damp is not, as commonly supposed, identical with 
carbureted hydrogen gas, as will appear from the follow¬ 
ing analysis : 

Jarbow. 

Bensham Killing- Gates- 

Seam. wobth. head. 

(Playfair.) (Richardson.) (Graham.) 
Carbureted hydrogen. 83*10 66*30 94*20 


Light air. 23*35 - 

Nitrogen. 14*20 6*52 4*50 

Oxygen. 0*40 .... 1*30 

Carbonic acid. 2*10 4*03 .... 


Its specific gravity is 0*650. Owing to the fact that it is 
lighter than air, it is always found at the highest level in 
mines, if not disturbed by currents ; if left still, it will 
mix by diffusion with the surrounding atmosphere. The 
breathing of this gas, unmixed with air, is fatal to life; 
but, when mixed with twice its own bulk of air, it may 
be breathed for some time without serious effects. When 
one part of fire-damp is mixed with thirty parts of air, 
by volume, it can lie detected in the appearance of the 
flame of a lamp, which is drawn up to a point and elonga¬ 
ted. If the mixture is increased up to two parts, in thirty, 










90 


the flame is surmounted by a blue halo, which partakes 
more or less of a brown color, according to the quantity 
of carbonic acid gas or “black-damp,” which may be pres¬ 
ent along with the fire-damp. When the fire-damp forms 
one in thirteen of air, the mixture becomes explosive, and 
when ignited, is converted into a mass of flame, with little 
explosive force ; when the mixture is one in eight or ten of 
air, the explosive force is greatest. If the proportion be 
greater than one to eight or ten of air, the explosive force 
becomes gradually less, as we increase the proportion of 
fire-damp, until it reaches one in six of air, when it will no 
longer explode, but extinguishes lights. The presence of 
“black-damp,” or of free nitrogen, in mixtures of fire¬ 
damp and air, lessens their explosive force ; one-seventh, 
by volume, of “black-damp” added to an explosive mixture, 
will render it non-explosive. 

AFTER-DAMP. 


The result of an explosion 
and air, is composed of : 


of a mixture of fire-damp 

BY ATOMS. BY MEASURE. 


O 

O 


w 

cj 

o 

id cd 
cd S' 

<3 O 


^ S- 

° 2 

oB 

>< 

s £ 

P O' 


B ST. 

s r 

S 

CD B 

CD B 

Pg 

* CD 

Pj 

■ CD 

P* 



Free Nitrogen. 

7-4 X 

2 =14*8 

14-8 

71-2 

Carbonic.. 

. . 1 Carbon, ( 
. . \ Oxygen, < 

|1* X 

2 = 2* 

[ 2 - 

9-6 

Acid Gas.. 

2* X 

1 = 2' : 

Steam. 

l Hydrogen < 
• ) Oxygen, ( 

2’ X 
2* X 

2 = 4'| 
1=2- | 

f 4 - 

19-2 




24-8 

20-8 

100-0 


Before the explosion there may be an excess of air or 
fire-damp beyond what is necessary to cause an explosion, 
which will remain unchanged and mixed with the after¬ 
damp. But there cannot be such an excess of air present 
as to render the after-damp fit for respiration, or the ex¬ 
plosion could not take place. The limits are such that 
this is impossible. It assumes the appearance of a dense, 
misty vapor. It benumbs the faculties and produces a 
deadly lethargy. Where carbonic acid prevails in the 
mixture, a lamp will not burn. In cases where a larger 





91 


proportion of nitrogen is present, the lamp will burn as 
in sulphureted hydrogen, even after the miner is struck 
down, in this case life being extinguished before the flame. 

As is seen in the table, “after-damp” contains about 71 
parts free nitrogen, 934 carbonic acid gas, and 19 parts of 
steam. The steam condensing after the explosion leaves, 
in round numbers, about 734 P ai ’t s of nitrogen and one 
part of carbonic acid gas out of 8*4 parts. If there is 
more fire-damp present than is chemically changed, the ex¬ 
plosive force is weaker, but the resultant after-damp is more 
deadly than when an excess of air is present in the mixture. 

CABBONIC OXIDE, THE WHITE-DAMP OF MINES. 

Assuming, as before, that the atomic volume of carbon 
is twice that of oxygen, its composition is as follows : 


Oxygen. 

Carbon . 

By Atoms. 

. 1 

. 1 

By Weight. 
56*69 
43*31 

By Volume. 

OK 

1 


1 

100*00 

1 cond’ed. 


Its specific gravity is 975*195, that of air being 1000. At 
a temperature of 32° and under pressure of 14*7 pounds 
per square inch, one thousand cubic feet of carbonic oxide 
weigh 79*426 pounds. Air under same conditions will 
weigh 80*728 pounds. Carbonic oxide has a much more 
deleterious effect on the animal economy than carbonic 
acid. Air containing one per cent, of carbonic oxide kills 
warm-blooded animals, as shown by experiments of M. 
Felix Leblanc. Carbonic oxide is itself an inflammable 
gas, but does not support combustion of other bodies. It 
has no taste, but has a peculiar smell, and when mixed in 
the proportion of two of gas to five of air, it becomes ex¬ 
plosive. It is easily kindled and burns with a blue flame, 
being transformed into carbonic acid by the process. This 
gas is, perhaps, never found in coal mines, except as the 
result of the burning of coal or wood, or the explosion of 
gunpowder. Such a proportion of this gas might be 
mixed with air that lights would burn, while life would 
become extinct. 

SULPHUEETED HYDBOGEN. 

This gras is sometimes met with in coal mines. It is 
colorless, but distinguishable by its peculiar smell, which 
resembles that of addled eggs. It produces fainting fits 
and asphyxia, when present in small proportions with ai 

r. 




92 


When pure, it acts as a powerful narcotic poison. It does 
not support combustion, but is itself inflammable and 
burns when mixed with air; when mixed with pure oxy¬ 
gen, it becomes explosive. It is composed as follows : 

By Atoms. By Weight. By Volume. 


Sulphur. 1 94*15 ^ 

Hydrogen. 1 5*85 1 


1 100*00 1 cond’ed 

According to Bunsen, the specific gravity of this gas is 
1178*88, that of air being assumed at 1000 under same con¬ 
ditions. According to some authorities, a horse died in an 
atmosphere which contained of its bulk of sulphureted 
hydrogen. It arises from the decomposition of iron 
pyrites in mineral springs and the excrementitious mat¬ 
ters which accumulate on working roads which have been 
used for years. Water will take up three times its own 
bulk of it, and its presence can be detected by its black¬ 
ening white lead or paper dipped in sugar of lead and 
dried. It explodes at a lower temperature than fire-damp, 
and the common Davy lamp is, therefore, not a sufficient 
protection. When this gas is present in the air of mines, 
lights will burn in the mixture, so that if its smell does not 
make its presence known, it may prove fatal to life before 
its presence is detected. 


WEIGHT AND CHEMICAL FORMULA OF THE DIF¬ 
FERENT GASES MET WITH IN MINES. 


NAME OF GAS. 

Chemical 

Formula. 

Specific 
weight, air 
being 1. 

Weight of 
a cubic foot in 
lbs. at 32° Fahr. 

Carbureted Hydrogen. 

ch 4 

0*55314 

*04480 

Carbonic Oxide. 

CO 

0*96741 

*07836 

Carbonic Acid. 

co 2 

1*52021 

*12313 

Carbon. 

c 

*82921 

*06716 

Oxygen. 

0 

1*10561 

*08955 

Sulphureted Hydrogen. 

h 2 s 

1*17488 

*09516 

Nitrogen. 

N 

0*97134 

*07868 

Hydrogen. 

H 

0*06927 

*00561 




























93 


QUANTITY OF AIR REQUIRED. 

The quantity of air necessary to ensure sufficient venti' 
lation in a mine has been variously estimated by the fol' 
lowing authorities: 

Mr. Herbert Mackworth : A minimum of 100 cubic feet 
per minute for each man and boy, for sanitary purposes 
alone, where there is no escape of fire-damp, and little of 
any other mineral gas. 

Mr. T. J. Taylor : In a mine yielding no fire-damp, with 
from 120 to 130 persons employed, a current of 20,000 to 
30,000 feet per minute, properly conveyed up to the face 
of the workings, and made to sweep the districts in which 
the people are employed. In fiery mines a much greater 
quantity. 

Mr. Warrington W. Smith : In round numbers 100 cubic 
feet of air per minute may be required for the health and 
comfort for each person underground ; but if fire-damp 
be given off, say at the rate of 200 cubic feet per minute, 
we should need, at the very least, thirty times that amount 
of fresh air to dilute it, or 6000 cubic feet in addition. 

Professor Phillips : In most of the fiery mines an aver¬ 
age of 600 cubic feet per minute per collier is circulated ; 
and nearly 200 cubic feet per minute for each acre of waste. 

Mr. Trevor F. Thomas : A man requires underground 
from 100 to 500 cubic feet of air per minute, depending 
on the condition of the mine ; a horse, 600 cubic feet ; a 
lamp, 10 cubic feet. For every pound of powder burnt, 
700 cubic feet should be allowed. 

For all anthracite mines nearly double the above esti¬ 
mates should be allowed, because of the much greater 
volume of powder smoke due to the large amount of blast¬ 
ing that is done. 


TREATMENT OF PERSONS OVERCOME WITH GAS. 

The most melancholy accidents are continually happen¬ 
ing from the want of a little precaution in dealing with 
gas. Lives have frequently been lost because of the neg¬ 
lect to lower a candle into old shafts or openings before 
descending them. How often when one man has been 
overcome by black-damp have others rushed to the rescue 
to fall and die beside him. Their lives would have been 
saved had a few buckets of water been dashed down when 
the first man fell, and very likely his life saved also. 



94 


When any one is thus immersed in carbonic acid, suffo¬ 
cation takes place in a very short time. Recovery from it 
is slow and extremely difficult, and only practical in the 
case of a very short continuance in the gas. It is often 
followed by some days’ illness, and particularly by a vio¬ 
lent headache. 

The symptoms of suffocation are the sudden cessation 
of respiration, of the pulsations of the heart, and of the 
action of all the sensory functions ; the countenance is 
swollen, and marked with reddish spots ; the eyes become 
■* protruded ; the features are discomposed, and the face is 
often livid. 

The following directions for the treatment of cases of 
suffocation by gases, which also apply to drowning, are 
approved by the Royal Medical and Chirurgical Society, 
England : 

WHAT TO DO. 

Send immediately for medical assistance, but proceed 
to treat the patient instantly, securing as much fresh air 
as possible. 

The points to be aimed at are—first and immediately, the 
restoration of breathing ; and secondly, after breathing is 
restored, the promotion of warmth and circulation. 

Remove the patient into fresh air, undo clothing and 
employ artificial respiration as per the rules given below ; 
use galvanic battery. 

TO BESTOEE NATUEAL BBEATHING. 

Rule 1.— To maintain a Free Entrance of Air into the 
Windpipe. —Cleanse the mouth and nostrils ; open the 
mouth ; draw forward the patient’s tongue, and keep it 
forward ; an elastic band over the tongue and under the 
chin will answer this purpose. Remove all tight clothing 
from about the neck and chest. 

Rule 2.— To adjust the Patient's Position. —Place the 
patient on his back on a flat surface, inclined a little from 
the feet upwards; raise and support the head and shoulders 
on a small firm cushion or folded article of dress placed 
under the shoulder-blades. 

Rule 3.— To imitate the Movements of Breathing. —Grasp 
the patient’s arm just above the elbow, and draw the arms 
gently and steadily upwards, until they meet above the head 
(this is for the purpose of drawing air into the lungs); and 


95 


keep the arms in that position for two seconds. Then turn 
down the patient’s arms, and press them gently and firmly 
for two seconds against the sides of the chest (this is with 
the object of pressing air out of the lungs. Pressure on 
the breast-bone will aid this.) 

Repeat these measures alternately, deliberately, and per- 
severingly, fifteen times in a minute, until a spontaneous 
effort to respire is perceived, immediately upon which cease 
to imitate the movements of breathing, and proceed to 

INDUCE CIRCULATION AND WARMTH. 

Should a warm bath be procurable, the body may be 
placed in it up to the neck, continuing to imitate the 
movements of breathing. Raise the body for twenty 
seconds in a sitting position, dash cold water against the 
chest and face, and pass ammonia under the nose. The 
patient should not be kept n the warm bath longer than 
five or six minutes. 

Rule 4.— To excite Inspiration .—During the employment 
of the above method excite the nostrils w 7 i h snuff or smell¬ 
ing salts, or tickle the throat with a feather. Rub the chest 
and face briskly, and dash cold and hot water alternately 
on them. 

TREATMENT AFTER NATURAL BREATHING HAS BEEN RESTORED. 

Rule 5 .—To induce Circulation and Warmth .—Wrap the 
patient in dry blankets and commence rubbing the limbs 
upwards, firmly and energetically. The friction must be 
continued under the blankets or over the dry clothing. 

Promote the warmth of the body by the application of 
hot flannels, bottles or bladders of hot water, heated bricks, 
&c., to the pit of the stomach, the armpits, between the 
thighs, and to the soles of the feet. Warm clothing may 
generally be obtained from bystanders. 

On the restoration of life, when the power of swallowing 
has returned, a teaspoonful of warm water, small quanti¬ 
ties of wine, warm bnmdy-and-water, or coffee should be 
given. The patient should be kept in bed, and a disposi¬ 
tion to sleep encouraged. During reaction large mustard 
plasters to the chest and below the shoulders will greatly 
relieve the distressed breathing. 


96 


RULES TO BE FOLLOWED BY THE BYSTANDERS IN 
CASE OF INJURY BY MACHINERY, WHEN SURGI¬ 
CAL AID CANNOT BE AT ONCE OBTAINED. 


SEND FOR A PHYSICIAN. 


The dangers to be feared in these cases are : Shock or 
collapse , loss of blood and unnecessary suffering in the mov¬ 
ing of the patient. 

Rule I. In Shock , the injured person lies pale, faint, cold, 
sometimes insensible, with labored pulse and breathing. 

Apply external warmth by wrapping him up (not merely 
covering him over), in blankets, quilts or extra clothes. 
Bottles of hot water, hot bricks, (not too hot), may also be 
wrapped up in cloths and put to the arm-pits, along the 
sides, and between the feet, if they are uninjured. 

If the patient has not been drinking, give brandy or 
whisky in table-spoonful doses, every 15 or 20 minutes—less 
frequently as he gets better. Food (strong soup is best) 
should also be given now and then. 

Rule II. Loss of Blood. If the patient is not bleeding, 
do not apply any constriction to the limb, but cover the 
wounded part lightly with the softest rags to be had, (linen 
is best.) 

If there is bleeding do not try to stop it by binding up 
the wound. The current of blood to the part must be checked. 
To do this find the artery, by its beating ; lay a firm and 
even compress or pad (made of cloth or 
rags rolled up, or a round stone or piece 
of wood well wrapped) over the artery. 
(See Fig. 1.) Tie a handkerchief around 
the limb and compress ; put a bit of stick 
through the handkerchief and twist the 
latter up until it is just tight enough to stop 
the bleeding , then put one end of the stick 
Fig 1. under the handkerchief to prevent un¬ 



twisting, as in Fig. 2. 


S The artery in the thigh runs along the 
inner side of the muscle in front near the 
bone. A little above the knee it passes to 
the back of the bone. In injuries at or 
above the knee apply the compress higher 
up, on the inner side of the thigh, at the 
point where the two thumbs meet at P, 
Fig. 3, with a knot on the outside of the 
Fig. 2. thigh. 


97 



Fig 3, Leg. 


When the leg is injured below the 
knee, apply the compress at the back 
of the thigh, just above the knee at 
P, Fig. 4, and the knot in front, as in 
Figs. 1 and 2. 

The artery in the arm runs down 
the inner side of the large muscle in 
front, quite close to the bone ; low 
down it gets further forward towards 
the bend of the elbow. It is most 
easily compressed a little above the 


middle. (P, Fig. 5.) 



Fig. 4, Leg. 


Care should be taken to examine the 
limb from time to time, and to lessen 
the compression if it becomes very 
cold or purple ; tighten up the hand¬ 
kerchief again if the bleeding begins 
afresh. 

Rule III. To transport a wounded 
person comfortably. Make a soft and 
even bed for the injured part of straw; 
folded blankets, quilts or pillows, laid 
on a board, with side-pieces of board 
nailed on, when this can be done. If 


possible, let the patient be laid on a door, shutter, settee or 
some firm support, properly covered. Have sufficient force 
to lift him steadily, and let those who bear him not keep 
step. 


Rule IV. Should any important ar¬ 
teries be opened, apply the handker¬ 
chief as recommended. Secure the 
vessel by a surgeon’s dressing forceps, 
or by a hook, then have a silk liga¬ 
ture put around the vessel and tighten 
tight. 

Rule V. Should the bleeding be 
from arterial vessels of small size, 
apply the persulphate of iron , either 
in tincture or in powder, by wetting a 
piece of lint or sponge with the solution ; then, after bleed¬ 
ing ceases, apply a compress against the parts to sustain 
them during the application of the persulphate of iron, and 
to prevent further bleeding should it occur. 

The persulphate of iron should be kept on hand in or 
about all working places. 





98 


SAFETY LAMPS. 

Sir Humphrey Davy thus describes his invention : The 
principle of my lamp is, that the flame, by being supplied 
with only a limited quantity or air, should produce such 
a quantity of azotic or carbonic acid gas, as to prevent the 
explosion of the fire-damp ; and which, from the nature of 
its operations, should be rendered unable to communicate 
any explosion to the outer air. The wire gauze should not 
be more than l-20th of an inch square ; wire from l-40th 
to l-60th of an inch is the most convenient size, and there 
should be 28 wire%, or 784 apertures per square inch. 

Stephenson describes his lamp as made to contain burnt 
air above the flame, and to permit the fire-damp to come 
in below in small quantity, to be burnt as it comes in, the 
burnt air preventing the passing of explosion upwards, and 
the velocity of the current preventing its passing down¬ 
wards. 

The following figures represent the illuminating power 
of various lamps, the standard being a wax candle, six to 
the pound: 

Average number of 
lamps required to 
equal wax candle 
standard. 


Davy’s lamp, with gauze. 8*00 

Stephenson’s lamp. 18*50 

Upton and Roberts’. ... 24*50 

Clanny’s (glass). 4*25 

Mueseler’s (glass). 3*50 

Parish’s lamp, with gauze. 2*75 

Davy’s lamp, without gauze. 2*50 

Common miner’s candle, 30 to the pound. 2*00 


A series of experiments on safety lamps was conducted 
by a Committee of the North of England Institute, who 
thus summarize their conclusions on an inflammable vapor 
observed to be given off by the gauzes when heated to a 
high temperature : 

“(1). That if a new gauze can be heated quickly to a red 
heat, it will, under certain circumstances, give off fumes 
which will inflame at that temperature. (2). That 
similar results can be obtained by smearing a gauze 









with oil. (3). And further, that oil, oii being poured 0v6r 
red-hot iron, will ignite. 

“We may conclude, therefore, that this phenomenon is 
due to the presence of oil adhering to the gauze. That by 
heating to a high temperature, the oil is volatilized and re¬ 
moved, and the gauze can again be raised to a red heat 
without these results ; but the action returns if any oil is 
smeared on the gauze, and cannot be removed, except by 
the gauze being again heated red-hot. That the ignition of 
the vapor externally takes place when the gauze is inserted 
within a red-hot tube ; but not when a piece of red-hot iron 
is inserted within it. 

“The gauze becomes much sooner heated red when put 
within the red-hot tube than when the iron is inserted 
within it. 

“It is essential, therefore, that the gauze be rapidly heated 
red ; if not, the oil is volatilized without being ignited. 

“We come, therefore, to the following conclusions : 

“(1). That if rapidly heated to a high temperature, a 
safety-gauze gives off fumes which will ignite. (2). That 
under all known conditions under which safety lamps are 
used, this could not occur. 

“That if a gauze be previously thoroughly acted on by 
caustic potash and sulphuric acid, it will not, on being 
heated by having a red-hot iron rod placed within it, give 
off fumes sufficiently inflammable to ignite on the outside. 
(There was considerable doubt about the gauze so heated 
tiring even on the inside. 

“The conclusion to be arrived at, therefore, is that the oil 
is simply attached to the outside of, and is not incorporated 
in the body of the iron.” 

Messrs. W. Smethurst, F. G. S., and James Ashworth, 
Mining Engineers, made a series of exhaustive experiments 
at the Garswood Hall Colliery, near Wigan, England, in 
1878, with all descriptions of safety lamps, as to the velocity 
necessary to move them in tin explosive mixture to cause 
an explosion. They report the following practical results : 

1. That the greater the diameter of the gauze, the quicker 
will the flame pass. 

2. That in an explosive atmosphere, with the low velocity 
of seven feet per second, and without coal dust, the Davy 
lamp, as ordinarily constructed, is unsafe. 


100 


3. That whatever may be the height of the tin shield, it 
is no protection or safeguard against the flame passing ; in 
fact, it adds to the danger. 

4. That if a cylindrical glass shield is used, as in the 
Davy “Jack” lamp, and the smoke gauze made so long that 
the glass shield overlaps it by over a quarter of an inch, the 
safety of the lamp is immensely increased, and the flame 
will not pass until the glass is broken up by the heat, or the 
double thickness of gauze becomes heated sufficiently for 
the flame to pass. 

». That a Davy lamp, constructed after the design of Mr. 
Smethurst’s Jack lamp, or Messrs. Ashworth and Wool- 
rych’s Jack-Davy lamp, is still safer. 

6. That in many cases a Clanny lamp cannot be con¬ 
sidered any safer than a Davy lamp, and this remark will 
also apply to the Bainbridge lamp. 

7. That a ventilating current containing a very small per¬ 
centage of gas, just enough to elongate the flame, and fol¬ 
lowed by a highly explosive body of gas, is the most severe 
test that a lamp can be put to, and very few can stand it. 







101 


THE BAROMETER AND THERMOMETER. 

Mercury is fourteen times heavier than water ; therefore, 
if the pressure of the atmosphere will balance 34 feet of 
water, it will only balance one-fourteenth part of that 
height of mercury, viz., a little more than 29 inches. When 
the barometer is 27*00 inches, the pressure per square foot 
is equal to 1908*23 pounds ; at 28*00 inches it is 1978*90 
pounds ; at 29*00 inches it is 2049*58 pounds ; at 30*00 
inches it is 2120*25 pounds ; and at 31*00 inches it is 
2190*93 pounds. To ascertain the amount of pressure per 
square foot, table No. 1 (p. 103) will be useful. Thus, at 
30*00 inches, the pressure, as above stated, is equal to 
2120*25 pounds on each square foot of surface. For the 
decimal *09 we have by table No. 1, 6*36 pounds ; 2120*25 -f- 
6*36 = 2126*61 pounds, being the pressure on each square 
foot when the height of the barometer is 30*09 inches. Sup¬ 
pose the mercury falls from this height to 29*47 inches; 
then, by the table, this indicates a reduction of pressure 
equal to 43*81 pounds per square foot. Required the 
amount in cubic feet of air and gas that may be expected 
to be given off for each 1000 cubic feet of open space in 
the goaves or other waste places. 


At 30*09 the pressure is.....2126*61 pounds. 

“ 29*47 “ .2082*80 “ 

Difference. 43*81 “ 


As 2126*61 : 43*81 :: 1000 : 20*60 cubic feet of gas, which 
(theoretically) may be expected to be given off by a re¬ 
duction of pressure equal to that indicated above. A table 
of pressure is not, however, absolutely necessary for work¬ 
ing the proportion. 

Height of barometer..30*09 

29*47 


Difference . *62 

As 30*09 : *62 :: 1000 : 20*60 cubic feet. 

If we divide the difference by 3, we shall obtain results 
sufficiently accurate for all practical purposes ; thus 62 ~- 
3 — 20%, or 20*66 cubic feet. Considerable experience in 
the use of this instrument in mines has shown that its in 








102 


dications are from one to two, or even three hours behind 
what is actually taking place ; consequently as an instru¬ 
ment for warning the furnace-men to “fire-up” or the engine- 
tender to urge on the fan, it is worse than useless. It is, 
however, valuable to superintendents and other officials in 
the mines as an incentive to thought. 

Respecting table No. 2 (p. 103), very little need be said. 
It shows the pressure in pounds and decimal parts of a 
pound for one inch, and decimal parts of an inch. The 
weight of a cubic foot of water = 1000 ounces ; therefore 
the pressure per square foot, one inch deep, will be 5*20 
pounds. If the water gauge stands at - 25, or a quarter of 
an inch, the pressure per square foot is T30 pounds. For 
the pressure to be equal to a quarter of a pound to the 
square inch, or 36 pounds per square foot, the difference of 
the water-level must be 6‘92 inches. The water gauge is 
very useful as a check on the furnaceman, and also a tell 
tale on the amount of friction in the air courses, from 
whence may be inferred their state and condition. 


THE THERMOMETER. 

TO CONVERT FAHR. INTO CENT. 

Subtract 32, and divide the remainder by 1*8, thus : 

167 — 32 

Fahr.-—75 Cent. 

1-8 

TO CONVERT CENT. INTO FAHR. 

Multiply by 1’8, and add 32, thus : 

Cent. 75 X 1*8 -f 32 = 167 Fahr. 

TO CONVERT FAHR. INTO REATJ. 

Subtract 32, and divide by 2'25, thus : 

113 — 32 

Fahr.-= 36 Reau. 

2*25 

TO CONVERT REAU. INTO FAHR. 

Multiply 2*25, and add 32, thus : 

Reau. 36 X 2-25 -{- 32 = 113 Fahr. 



103 


PRESSURE OF AIR, PER SQUARE FOOT, AS SHOWN 
BY THE BAROMETER AND WATER-GAUGE. 


Table 

No. 1. 

Table 

No. 2. 

Table 

No. 1. 

Table 

No. 2. 

Barometer. 

Water Gauge. 

Barometer. 

Water Gauge. 

In. 

Lbs. 

In. 

Lbs. 

In. 

Lbs. 

In. 

Lbs. 

100. 

... 70 68 

TOO. 

.520 

•50 .... 

... 35 34 

•50. 

.260 

•99. 

.... 69 97 

•99. 

.5T4 

•49. 

... 34-63 

•49. 

.2-54 

•98. 

.... 69-27 

■98. 

.5-09 

•48. 


•48. 

.2-49 

•97. 

.... 68-56 

•97... 

.504 

•47. 

... 33 22 

•47. 

.2-44 

•96. 

.... 67-85 

•96. 

.4-99 

•46. 

... 3 -51 

•46. 

.2-39 

•95. 

.... 67-15 

•95... 

.4-94 

*45. 

... 31-81 

•45. 

.2-34 

•94. 

.... 66-44 

•94. 

.4-88 

•44. 

... 3110 

•44. 

.2-28 

•93. 

.... 65*73 

•93. 

.4’83 

•43. 

... 30-39 

•43. 

.223 

•92. 

.... 65-03 

•92. 

.4 78 

•42. 

... 29 69 

*«2. 

.218 

•91. 

.... 64-32 

•91. 

.4 73 

41. 

...28 98 

•41. 

.2-13 

•90. 

.... 62-61 

•90. 

.468 

•40. 

... 28 27 

•40. 

.2-08 

•89. 

... 62-91 

•89. 

.4-62 

•39. 

... 27-57 

•39. 

.2-0 1 

•88. 

.... 62 20 

•88 .... 

.4-57 

•38. 

... 26-86 

•38. 

.1-97 

•87. 

.... 61-40 

•87. 

.452 

•37. 

... 26T5 

•37. 

.1-92 

•'6. 

.... 60-78 

•86. 

.4'47 

•36. 

... 25 44 

•36. 

.1-87 

•85. 

.... 60 08 

•85. 

.. .. 4 42 

•35. 

... 24'74 

•35. 

.L82 

•84. 


•84. 

.4 36 

•34. 

... 24 03 

•34. 

.1 76 

*83. 

.... 58-66 

•83. 

.. .. 4-31 

•33. 

... 23 32 

*33. 

.1 71 

•82. 

.... 57 96 

•82. 

.4-26 

•32. 

... 22 62 

•32. 

.1-66 

•81. 

.... 57 25 

•81. 

.421 

•31. 

... 2191 

•31. 

. 1-61 

•80. 

.... 56-54 

•80. 

.4T6 

•30. 

... 21*20 

•30. 

.1-56 

•79. 

.... 55-84 

•79. 

.410 

•29. 

... 20-50 

•29. 

.1-50 

•78. 

.... 5513 

•78. 

.4-05 

■28. 

... 19 79 

•28. 

.1-45 

•77. 

.... 54-42 

•77. 

.4-00 

•27. 

... 19-08 

•27. 

. 1-40 

•76. 

.... 53-72 

•76. 

.3 95 

•26. 

... 18-38 

26. 

.1-35 

•75. 

... 53 01 

•75. 

. 3-90 -25. 

... 17-67 

•25. 

.1-30 

•74. 

... 52-30 

•74. 

.3-84 

"24. 

... 16-96 

•24. 

.1-24 

•73. 

... 51-60 

•73. 

.3 79 

23 

... 16-26 

•23. 

.119 

•72. 

... 50-89 

•72. 

.3-74 

•22. 


•22. 

.... 114 

•71.... 

..5018 

•71. 

.3 69 

•21. 

... 14-84 

•21. 

.... 1-09 

•70. 

... 49-48 

•70. 

.3-64 

•20. 

... 1414 

•20. 

.... 1-04 

•69. 

... 4877 

•69. 

.3-58 

•19. 

... 13-43 

•19. 

.... -98 

•68. 

... 48-06 

•68. 

.3 53 

•18. 

... 12-72 

*18. 

.... -93 

•67. 

... 47 36 

•67. 

.3-48 

T7. 

.. 1202 

•17. 

.... -88 

•66. 

... 46 65 

•66. 

.... 343 

1 T6. 

.. 11-31 

•16. 

.... -'3 

•65. 

... 45-94 

65. 

.3-s8 

T5. 

. 10-60 

•15. 

.... -78 

•64. 

... 45-24 

•64. 

.... 3 32 

•14. 

.. 9 90 

14. 

.... *72 

•63. 

... 44-53 

•63. 

.3-27 1 

•13. 

.. 919 1 

T3. 

.... -67 

•62. 

... 43 82 

•62. 

.... 3-22 

•12. 

.. 8-18 

T2. 

.... *62 

•61. 

... 43 11 

•61 .... 

.... 317 

•11. 

.. 7 - 77 

•11. 


•60. 

... 42-41 

•60. 

....312 

•io. 

.. 7-07 1 

•10. 

.... ’52 

•59. 

... 41-70 

•59. 


•09. 

.. 6-36 

•09. 


•58. 

.. 40-99 

•58. 

.... 3-01 

•08. 

.. 5 65 

•08. 

.... -41 

•57. 

.. 40-29 

•57. 

....2-96 

•07. 

.. 4 95 

•07. 

.... -36 

56. 

.. 39 58 

•56 

.... 2-91 

•06. 

.. 4-24 

•06. 

.... -31 

•55. 

.. 38 87 

•55. 

.... 2-86 

•05. 

.. 3-53 

•05. 

.... -26 

•54. 

.. 38-17 

•54. 

... 2-80 

•04. 

.. 2-83 

■04. 

.... -20 

•53. 

.. 37-46 

•53. 

... 2*75 

•03. 

.. 2*12 

•03. 

.... 15 

•52. 

.. 36*75 

•52. 

.... 2-70 

•02. 

.. 1-41 

•02. 

.... -io 

•51. 

.. 36 051 

•51. 

.... 2-65 

•01. 

.. -71 

•01. 

.... -05 




















































































































































































































104 


HEAT. 

Quantities of heat are expressed in units of weight of 
water heated one degree ; as in pounds of water heated one 
degree Fahr. 

Quantities of heat are sometimes also expressed in units 
of evaporation ; that is, units of weight of water evaporated 
under the pressure of one atmosphere. 

Heat which evaporates 1 pound of water under one at¬ 
mosphere =9661 units of heat. 


THE EFFECTS OF HEAT ON DIFFERENT METALS. 

Fahrenheit. 

Degrees. 

Extremity of the scale of Wedge wood.uncertain. 


Platinum melts.uncertain. 

Wrought iron fuses. 2910 

Cast iron melts. 2787 

Welding heat of bar iron. 2420 

Fine gold melts.. . 2100 

Fine silver melts. 1850 

Copper melts. 1990 

Brass melts. 1870 

Iron red-hot in daylight. 1207 

Lead melts. 612 

Mercury boils. . 600 

Bismuth melts. 476 


COMMUNICATION OF HEAT. 


Taking the conducting power of gold at 100, the con¬ 
ducting powers of the undernoted bodies are as follows : 


Gold. 

.100-00 Tin. 

.30-38 

Platinum. 

.98 10 Lead. 

.17-96 

Silver. 

. 97-30 Marble. 

. 2*34 

Copper. 


1*22 

Iron. 

. 37 41 

Brick Earth. 

. 113 

Zinc. 
































105 


STANDARD POINTS 


Fahr. Cent. Reau. 

Boiling point of water under one 

atmosphere. 212° 100° 80° 

Melting point of ice. 32 0 0 

Absolute zero : known by theory 

only, about. —461*2 —274 —292*2 

9° Fahrenheit—5° Centigrade^ 4° Reaumur. 

Temp Fahr.=4 Temp. Cent.-(-32°. 

“ 44 =| Temp Reau.+32°. 

Temp. Cent.=(} (Temp. Fahr.—32°)=f Temp. Reau. 
Temp. Reau,=-f (Temp. Fahr.—32°)=f Temp. Cent. 


THE EXPANSION OF SOLIDS. 


By increasing the temperature from 32° to 212 °, the length of 
the bar at 32° being l'OOOOOOOO. 


Glass Tube. 

.. 1*00082800 

Platinum. 

..1*00088420 

Antimony. 

. .1*00108300 

Cast Iron. 

..1*00111111 

Steel. 

..1*00118999 

Blistered Steel. . 

..1*00112500 

Steel, hardened. 

. . 1*00122502 

Bismuth. 


Silver. 

..1*00189000 

Tin. 

..1*00217298 


Gold.1*00150000 

Lead.1*00286700 

Brass.1 00186671 

Wrought Iron.1*00125800 

Zinc.1 00294200 

Spelter Solder, 

Brass 2, Zinc 1.. 1*00205800 
Soft Solder, Lead > 

2, Tin 1.1*00250800 

Copper 8, Tin 1... 1*00181700 
Palladium.1*00100000 


THE EXPANSION OF LIQUIDS IN VOLUME FROM 32° 
TO 212° FAHR. 


1000 parts of Water.become 1046 

“ 44 44 Oil. 44 1080 

“ “ 44 Mercury. 44 1018 

“ 44 44 Spirits of Wine. 44 1110 

“ 44 44 Air. 44 1373 




























EXPANSION OF GASES, 

Boyle’s (MaHolte’s) Law. 

“The density of a gas is proportional to its pressure.” 
Saturated steam is not a perfect gas 

Perfect gases have as nearly as possible the same co¬ 
efficient of expansion under all temperatures. 

P —Pressure at zero—29*92 inches of mercury. 
t=Temperature of gas 
V=Volume of gas at zero. 
v=‘Volume of gas at any temperature t. 

W—Weight of gas at zero, 
w = Weight of gas at any temperature t. 

P—Pressure at any temperature t. 

K=^Co-efficent of expansion with each degree of tempera¬ 
ture—’00203G Fahr. 


W=w (1+Kt) 

P=P (1+Kt) 

v—V (1+Kt) 
v 

V=- W 

1+Kt w—-- 

1+Kt 


VOLUME OF A GASEOUS BODY AT DIFFERENT TEM¬ 
PERATURES. 

The table given, on page 107, taken from Lardner’s Hand¬ 
book of Natural Philosophy , shows the changes of volume 
of a gaseous body consequent on given changes of tem¬ 
perature. In column V are expressed in cubic inches the 
volumes which a thousand cubic inches of air, at 32 degrees 
Fahrenheit, will have at the temperature in degrees Fahren¬ 
heit expressed in column T, the air being supposed to be 
maintained constantly at the same pressure. 





T. V. 
—49... 8347 
—18...836 7 
—17... 838-8 
—16...840 8 
—45... 842-8 
—44...844-9 
—13...846-9 
—42... 849-0 
-41...8510 
—40...8531 
—39...855 1 
—38...8571 
—37...859-2 
—36...861 2 
—35...863 3 
—34... 865-3 
—33...867-3 
—32...869-4 
—31...871 4 
—30...873 5 
—29...875-5 
—28...877-6 
—27...879-6 
—26...881*6 
—25... 883*7 
—24...885"7 
—23...887-8 
—22...889 8 
—21... 891-8 
—20.. .893-9 
—19... 895-9 
—18...8980 
—17... 900 0 
—16...902 0 
—15... 904-1 
—14...906-1 
—13...908-2 
—12...9102 
—11...912-2 
—10...914 3 

— 9...916*3 

— 8...9184 

— 7...920-4 

— 6...922*5 

— 5... 924-5 

— 4...926 5 

— 3...928-6 

— 2...930-6 

— 4... 932-7 
0...934*7 

1.. .936 7 

2.. .935-8 

3.. .940-8 

4.. . 942-9 

5.. . 944-9 
6. ..947-0 

7.. .949-0 

* *5 1 ^ r* w-'w'. -■* ... 


T. V. 

8.. . 951-0 

9.. . 953-1 

10.. . 955-1 

11.. . 957-1 

12.. . 959-2 

13.. . 961-2 

14.. . 963-3 

15.. . 965-3 

16.. . 967-3 

17.. . 969-4 

18.. . 971-4 

19.. . 973-5 

20.. . 975 5 

21.. . 977-6 

22.. . 979-6 

23.. . 9816 

24.. . 983-7 

25.. . 985 7 

26.. . 987-8 

27.. . 998-8 

28.. . 991-8 

29.. . 993-9 

30.. . 995-9 

31.. . 998-0 

32.. .1000.0 

33.. .1002.0 

34.. .1004.1 

35.. . 1006-1 

36.. .1008.2 

37.. . 1010 2 

38.. .1012.2 

39.. . 1014*3 

40.. .1016.3 
41. ..1018-4 

42.. .1020.4 

43.. .1022.4 

44.. .1024.5 

45.. .1026.5 

46.. .1028.6 

47.. . 1030-6 

48.. . 1032 7 

49.. . 1034-7 

50.. .1036 . 7 

51.. .1038.8 

52.. .1040.8 

53.. . 1042 9 

54.. .1044.9 

55.. . 1046-9 

56.. . 1049-0 

57.. . 1051-0 

58.. .1053.1 

59.. .1055.1 

60.. .1057.1 
61. ..1059-2 

62.. .1061.2 

63.. .1063'3 

64.. . 1065-3 



107 

T. 

. V. 

65. 

..1067 3 

66. 

..1069-4 

67. 

..1061-4 

68. 

..1073-5 

69. 

..1075-5 

70. 

..1077-6 

71. 

..1079 6 

72. 

..10,81-6 

73. 

..1083-7 

74. 

..1085-7 

75. 

..1087-8 

76. 

..1089-8 

77. 

..1091*8 

78. 

..1093 9 

79. 

..1095-9 

80. 

..1098-0 

81. 

..1100-0 

82. 

..1102 0 

83., 

,.1104-1 

84., 

..1106-1 

85., 

..1108-2 

86., 

,.1110-2 

87., 

..1112-2 

88., 

..1114-3 

89., 

..1116-3 

90., 

,.1118-4 

91., 

..1120-4 

92.. 

,.1122-4 

93., 

,.1124-5 

94., 

,.1126-5 

95.. 

.1128*6 

96.. 

.1130*6 

97.. 

.1132-7 

98.. 

.1134-7 

99.. 

.1136-7 

100.. 

.1138 8 

101.. 

.1140-8 

102.. 

.1142 9 

103.. 

.1144-9 

104.. 

.1147-0 

105.. 

.1149-0 

106.. 

.1151*0 

107.. 

.1153-1 

108.. 

.1155*1 

109.. 

.1157-1 

110.. 

.1159-2 

111.. 

.1161-2 

112.. 

.1163*3 

113.. 

.1165*3 

114.. 

.1167 3 

115.. 

.1169*4 

116.. 

.1171*4 

117.. 

.1173*5 

118.. 

.1175-5 

119.., 

.1177-6 

120.., 

.11796 

121.., 

,1181-6 


T. V. 

122.. .1183-7 

123.. . 1185*7 

124.. .1187-8 

125.. .1189*8 

126.. .1191-8 

127.. .1193*9 

128.. .1195-9 

129.. . 1198-0 

130.. .1200-0 

131.. .1202-0 

132.. .1204-1 

133.. .12061 

134.. . 1208*2 
135. ..1210-2 

136.. .12122 

137.. . 1214-3 

138.. .12163 

139.. . 1218-4 
140. ..1220-4 

141.. . 1222-4 

142.. .1224-5 

143.. .1226*5 

144.. . 1228-6 

145.. . 1230-6 

146.. . 1232-7 

147.. . 1234-7 

148.. .1236-7 

149.. . 1238*8 

150.. .1240-8 

151.. .1242-9 

152.. . 1244-9 

153.. . 1246 9 

154.. .1249*0 

155.. .1251-0 

156.. . 1253 0 

157.. .1255*1 

158.. .1257-1 
159. ..1259-2 

160.. .1261*2 

161.. .1263-3 

162.. . 1265 3 

163.. .1267-3 

164.. . 1269-4 

165.. .1271*4 

166.. . 1273*5 

167.. .1275*5 

168.. .1277*5 

169.. .1279-6 

170.. .1281-6 

171.. .1283*7 

172.. .1285-7 

173.. . 1287-8 

174.. . 1289*8 

175.. .1291*8 

176.. .1293-9 

177.. . 1295*9 

178.. .1298-0 


T. V. 

179.. .1300*0 

180.. .1302-0* 

181.. .1304-1 

182.. .1306-1 

183.. . 1308"2 

184.. .1310-2 

185.. .1312*2 

186.. . 1314-3 

187.. .1316-3 

188.. . 1318-4 

189.. .1320 4 

190.. .1322*4 

191.. .1324-5 

192.. . 1326 5 

193.. .1328-6 

194.. .1330-6 

195.. .1332-6 

196.. . 1334 7 

197.. .1336 7 

198.. . 1338-8 

199.. .13408 

200.. . 1342-9 

201.. . 1344-9 

202.. .1346-0 

203.. .1349-0 

204.. .13510 

205.. .1353*1 

206.. .1355-1 

207.. .1357-1 

208.. .1359*2 
209. ..1361-2 

210.. .1363-3 

211.. .1365-3 

212.. .1367 3 

213.. .1369-4 

214.. .1371 *4 
215. ..1373-5 

216.. .1375*5 

217.. .1377-5 

218.. . 1379 6 
219. ..1381*6 

220.. .1383*7 

230.. .1404*1 

240.. . 1424-5 

250.. . 1444-9 

260.. .1465*3 

270.. . 1485-7 

280.. .1506-1 

290.. .1526-5 

300.. .1546-9 

400.. .1751-0 
500. ..1955-1 

600.. .2159-2 

700.. .2363-3 

800.. .2567*3 

900.. . 2773-5 

1000,..2947-; 













108 


COLORS EXPRESSIVE OF THE CORRESPONDING 
HIGH TEMPERATURES REDUCED TO FAHREN- 
* HEIT. ( Becquerel .) 


Faint red.. 

Dull red. . 

Brilliant red.*. 

Cherry red. 

Bright cherry red. 

Orange . 

Bright orange. 

White heat... .... 

Bright white heat . 

Brilliant white. 

Melting point of cast iron. 

Greatest heat of iron blast furnace 


.. 060 degrees Fahr* 
...1290 “ “ 

...1470 
...1650 “ 

.1830 “ 44 

...2010 44 44 

,.2190 44 44 

...2370 44 44 

...2550 44 44 

...2730 
...2786 44 

...3300 44 44 


TEMPERING STEEL. 

( Haswell .) 

Steel, in its hardest state, being too brittle for most pur¬ 
poses, the requisite strength and elasticity are obtained ' 
by tempering—or letting down the temper , as it is termed— 
which is performed by heating the hardened steel to a cer¬ 
tain degree and cooling it quickly. The requisite heat is 
usually ascertained by the color which the surface of the 
steel assumes from the film of oxide thus formed. The de¬ 
grees of heat to which these several colors correspond are 
as follows : 

At 430, a very faint yellow. 

At 450, a pale straw'color. 

At 470, a full yellow. 

At 490, a brown color.. 

At 510, brown, with purple 

spots.. 

At 538, purple. 

At 550, dark blue. 

At 560, full blue .. 

At 600, grayish blue, verging 
on black. 

If steel is heated higher than this, the affect of the 
hardening process is destroyed. 


suitable for hard instruments; as 
hammer-faces, drills, &c. 

| For instruments requiring hard 
, edges without elasticity; as 
' shears, scissors, turning tools, 
L &c. 

{ For tools, for cutting wood and 
soft metals; such a< plane-irons, 
knives, &c. 

t For tools requiring strong edges 
■< without extreme hardness; as 
( ccld-chisels. axes, cutlery, &c. 

(For spring-temper, which will bend 
-< before breaking; as saws, sword- 
( blades, &c. 
























109 


STEAM, ENGINES, BOILERS, PUMPS, &C. 

Steam, as the power which puts any engine into motion, 
may be defined as an invisible, elastic fluid, generated from 
water by the application of heat. It is invisible and highly 
elastic The point at which steam is produced in the 
ebullition of water is that temperature at which the ten¬ 
sion of its vapor exactly balances the pressure of the at¬ 
mosphere. A unit of heat is defined as the amount of heat 
necessary to raise the temperature of a pound of water 
one degree. To arrive at the actual temperature of steam 
the following formula is used: 

1082° F -f -805 T° 

The constant number, 1082 degrees, must be increased 
•305 degrees Fahrenheit for each unit of temperature, to 
give the total amount of heat in steam under any pressure. 
Steam is measured by a pressure gauge, at so many pounds 
per square inch, and also by atmospheres. Steam of 15 
pounds pressure is of one atmosphere ; 80 pounds, two 
atmospheres ; 45 pounds, three atmospheres, &c. Steam 
of two atmospheres and above is high-pressure steam, and 
below two atmospheres low-pressure. Steam is taken from 
the boiler to the cylinder at a very high pressure, so as to 
give the piston a high velocity. When a certain portion of 
the stroke is completed, the steam is cut off and no more 
allowed to enter, and the stroke is finished by the elasticity 
of the steam already in the cylinder. Suppose steam en¬ 
ters any cylinder, at 60 pounds pressure per square inch, 
and the cylinder is 6 feet long, and that the piston per¬ 
forms a quarter of its stroke, or 1 foot, 6 inches ; when 
the steam is cut off, the remainder of the stroke will have 
to be completed by the steam now in the cylinder ; the 
pressure it will attain at half stroke will be 30 pounds ; at 
three-quarter stroke 20 pounds, and so on. The terminal 
pressure may be found by the proportion: The initial 
pressure is to the terminal pressure as the whole stroke is 
to the part of the stroke before cut off. 


110 


DUTY OF STEAM ENGINES. 

The duty of an engine is the work done in relation to 
the fuel consumed. This can easily be determined when 
its consumption of coal per actual horse-power per hour 
is known. 

To find the duty of an engine, divide 166*32 by the num¬ 
ber of pounds of coal consumed per actual horse-power 
per hour; the quotient is the duty in millions of pounds. 


TO FIND THE HORSE POWER OF STEAM ENGINES. 

INDICATED HOKSE-POWEK. 

A = Area of piston in square inches. 

P = Average pressure of steam in lbs. per sq. inch in 
cylinder. 

S = Length of stroke in feet. 

R = Number of revolutions per minute. 
r — Number of revolutions per second. 

2 A P R S 

Indicated horse-power -- 

33,000 
2 A P r S 


550 

NOMINAL HORSE-POWEB. 

V = Mean velocity of piston in feet per minute. 
D Diameter of cylinder in inches. 

S — Stroke of engine in feet. 

H = Nominal horse-power of engine. 

D 2 fS~ 

H —-for high pressure. 

15*6 

]/ 15*6 H 

D = - Z - V=128^ 

fS 

D 2 

H =-- for condensing engines. 

47 

V~W H 



V = 128fS 










Ill 


s 

Nominal horse-power means very little, as the actual or 
indicated horse-power varies in stationary engines from 
234 to 3 times the nominal horse-power. It is becoming 
absolete. 


TABLE FOR THE APPROXIMATE VELOCITIES FOR 
THE PISTONS OF STEAM ENGINES. 


CONDENSING ENGINES. 


Length 
of stroke 
in feet. 

Velocity in 
feet per 
minute. 

No. of rev¬ 
olutions 
per min¬ 
ute. 

2 

160 

40 


177^ 

3534 

3 

192 

32 

3 % 

203 

29 

4 

214 

26M 

4^ 

22034 

24 % 

5 

230 

23 

% 

236 

2134 

6 

240 

20 

7 

245 

173^ 

8 

256 

16 


NON CONDENSING ENGINES. 


Length 
of stroke 

Velocity in 
feet perl 

No. of rev¬ 
olutions 

in feet. 

minute. | 

per min¬ 
ute. 


186 

62 

2 

200 

50 

2K 

21234 

42 % 

2 % 

21734 

39 X 

3 

222 

37 

3^ 

231 

33 

4 

236 

29 % 

4M 

243 

27 

5 

247>4 

24M 

»34 

253 

23 

6 

264 

22 


THE AMOUNT OF STEAM AN ENGINE USES. 


A = Area of piston in inches. 

S = Stroke of engine in feet. 

R = Number of revolutions per minute, 
x = Ratio of admission of steam; stroke being one. 
v — Specific volume of steam corresponding to the pres¬ 
sure of steam on admission to the cylinder. 

Q — Cubic feet of steam consumed per hour, allowing for 
loss in passages, piston clearances, leakage, &c. 
q = Cubic feet of water to be evaporated per hour. 

Q 


Q 1-05 ASRx; 


v 


















112 


FRICTION OF ENGINES. 


P = Pressure of steam in lbs. per sq. in. necessary to 
overcome the friction of an engine. 

D = Diameter of cylinder in inches. 

18 

P =- 

l/D 


AVERAGE PRESSURE OF STEAM IN ENGINE CYLIN¬ 
DERS. 


Initial 

Avt rage pressure of steam in tbs. per square inch 
for the whole stroke. 

Pressure, 
tbs. per 

Portion of stroke at which steam is cut off. 

square 

inch. 

% 

% 


% 



• r > 

4-8 

4-0 

4-2 

3*7 

3-0 

1-9 

10 

9-0 

9-2 

8-4 

7-4 

5-9 

3*8 

15 

14-5 

13-8 

12-7 

11-2 

8-9 

5*8 

20 

19-3 

18-4 

10-9 

14-8 

11-9 

7"7 

25 

24T 

22 "9 

21-1 

18*0 

14-9 

9-0 

30 

29-0 

27-5 

25-4 

22*3 

17-9 

11-5 

35 

33*8 

32-1 

29-0 

20*0 

20*8 

13-5 

40 

38-6 

30-7 

33-8 

29-7 

23-8 

15-4 

45 

43-4 

41-3 

38-1 

33-5 

20-8 

17-8 

50 

48*3 

45*9 

42-3 

37-2 

29-8 

19*2 

(50 

57*9 

55-1 

50-7 

44-0 

35-7 

23-1 

70 

07-0 

04-3 

59-2 

52-1 

41-7 

26-9 

80 

77-3 

73-5 

07-7 

59"5 

47*7 

30-8 

90 

80-9 

82*7 

70-1 

00-9 

53'G 

34*0 

100 

90-0 

91-9 

84-0 

74-4 

59-0 

38-5 

110 

100-2 

101-1 

93-1 

81-8 

05*0 

42-3 

120 

115-9 

110-3 

101-5 

89-3 

71*5 

40-2 

130 

125-0 

119*4 

no- 

90-7 

77-5 

50'0 

140 

135'2 

128-0 

118-5 

104-1 

83-4 

53-9 

150 

144-9 

137-8 

120*9 

111-0 

89-4 

57-7 

100 

154*0 

147-0 

135-4 

119*0 

95*4 

01-0 

180 

173-9 

105-4 

152-3 

133-9 

107*3 

09-3 

200 

193-2 

183-8 

109-2 

148-8 

119-2 

77'0 
























113 


WINDING ENGINES. 


According to the second edition of Mr. Greenwell’s 
Tractical Treatise on Mine Engineering , if it be required to 
draw 600 tons daily from a shaft, the load, speed and power 
of engine may be adjusted to the depth as follows : 





Time of 

Power of Engines. 



Speed. 

Drawing 

,- 

- * - 


Depth 

Load. 

Feet 

and 


Allowed 




per 

Changing. Calcu- 

h r fric¬ 


Feet. 

Tubs. Cwts. 

second 

Seconds. 

lated. 

tion, &e. 

Total. 

300 

2 = 16 

10 

40 

33 

17 

50 

450 

2 — 16 

14 

40 

45 

22 

67 

600 

2 = 16 

18 

40 

58 

29 

87 

750 

3 = 24 

15 

70 

74 

37 

111 

900 

3 = 24 

18 

70 

88 

44 

132 

1050 

3 = 24 

21 

70 

102 

51 

153 

1200 

3 = 24 

24 

70 

117 

58 

175 

1350 

3 = 24 

27 

70 

132 

66 

198 

1500 

3 = 24 

30 

70 

146 

73 

219 

1650 

4 =32 

24 

90 

157 

78 

235 

1800 

4 = 32 

25 

90 

169 

84 

253 

1950 

4 = 32 

28 

90 

182 

91* 

273 

2100 

4 = 32 

30 

90 

196 

98 

294 

2250 

4 = 32 

32 

90 

208 

104 

312 

2400 

4 = 32 

34 

90 

220 

110 

330 


To find the proper size for the drum or sheave : 

Drum to be 10 ft. diam. for a rope of 1 in. circumference. 
“ 10 ft. 6 in. diam. for a rope of l 1 ^ in. circum. 

“ 11 ft. “ “ 1% “ 

Another rule is as follows : 

Drum to be 12 feet diameter for a 10 lb. per fathom rope. 


“ 

13 



12 lb. 



U 

14 

4 - 

a 

14 R>. 

U 

“ 

u 

15 

u 


16 lb. 

U 



With flat ropes, to find the point in the shaft —that is, 
the distance from the bottom—at which the cages meet, it 
is best to apply the arithmetical progression formula : 

N( 

S 2 a + (N 1) b 

2 ( 


I 

$ 






114 


' S = depth of pit. 

N =■ total number of revolutions. 

Wh r a = c i rcum f erence °f drum. 

1 | b = successive increase in circumference per 

revolution = 2 X thickness of rope X 
3-1416. 

These to be all in the same denomination. 

By this formula we find N the total number of revolu¬ 
tions. But the meeting must take place at half this num¬ 
ber of revolutions. 

N 

Work out same formula with — for N, say w, and the 

2 

value thus found for S will be the distance from the bot¬ 
tom at which the cages meet. 

TO FIND THE DIAMETER OF HOISTING DRUMS FOR 
FLAT ROPES. 

Depth of pit in feet. 

Number of revolutions of engine. 

Thickness of rope in inches. 

Diameter of winding barrel in feet. 

12 P — 3"15 R 2 T 
37-7 R 


P = 
R = 
T = 
D 

D = 


CONE DRUMS. 

To find either diameter of double cone drums when one 
diameter, weight of rope, cage and cars, and coal are 
given; let 

C = Weight of cage and empty cars. 

M. = Weight of coal or material in cars. 

R == Weight of rope, 
d — Small diameter. 

D = Large diameter. 

d (M + 2 C + 2 R) 

D = M -f C 

D (M 4- 2 C) 
d “ M + 2C + 2R 







115 


I « 


PUMPING ENGINES. 


The power required for pumping, according to Tredgold, 
is found by taking the exact height from the surface of the 
water to the point of discharge—adding 1% feet for each 
lift for the force required to give the water the velocity, 
and also ^th of the height for the friction of the piston. 
Call this quantity in feet H, and the diameter of pump A, 
in inches, then 


*341 HA 2 — load in pounds, 

whence if P - mean effective force on the steam piston in 
pounds per circular inch, we have 

d = a(^«-S)^ 


the diameter of piston in inches. 

To find the quantity of water a pump delivers : 

| D = diameter of pump in inches. 

L = length of stroke in inches 
N = number of strokes per minute. 

G = number of gallons per minute delivered. 

D 2 X *7854 X D 
Then G =- 2 3 1X N 


Let 


TO FIND THE QUANTITY OF WATER WHICH AN EN¬ 
GINE WILL PUMP FROM A GIVEN DEPTH. 

H = Horse-power of engine. 

Y — Depth of pit in yards. 

G = Quantity of water in gallons per minute. 

H X 1319 H X 1319 

G =-; Y 

Y G 

YXG 

H =- 

1319 


USEFUL NUMBERS FOR PUMPS. 
D -- Diameter of pump in inches. 

S - Stroke of pump in inches. 

D 2 X S X *7854 = cubic inches. 

D 2 X S X *0034 — gallons. 

D 2 X s x -0004545 = cubic feet. 

D 2 X S X *02833 = lbs. fresh water. 









116 


BOILERS. 

To find the safe pressure for a single-riveted cylindrical 
boiler : D = diameter of boiler in inches, S — safe pres¬ 
sure in lbs. per square inch, T the thickness of plate. 

T X 8900 SXD 

S —- T = - 

D 8900 


M 44,800 

The constant, 8900, is very nearly equal to — 

S 5 

where M, the maximum tensile strength of boiler plate, is 


taken at 20 tons per square inch, and 5 = the safe strain 
per square inch. 

Strength of plate. 1 

Double riveted joints. 0*7 

Single 41 “ ... 0-56 


RELATIVE HEATING POWER OF FUEL. 
{Fritz.) 


Fuel. 

Theoretical. 

Pounds of water evaporated 
by 1 pound < f fuel. 

In Steam 
Boilers. 

In Open 
Boilers. 

Anthracite. 

12-46 



Coal. 

11*51 

5-2 to 8 

5-2 

Charcoal. 

10-77 

6 to 6-75 

3-7 

Coke. 

9-00 to 10-8 

5 to 8 


Brown Coal. 

7*7 

2-2 to 5-5 

1*5 to 2*3 

Peat. 

T>-5 to 7-4 

2-5 to 4-5 

1*7 to 2-3 

Wood. 

4-3 to 5-6 

2-5 to 3*75 

1*86 to 2'1 

Straw. 

3-0 

1-86 to 1-92 






In heating boilers on an average only 47 per cent, of the 
theoretical heating power of fuel is utilized, the remainder 
being lost through imperfect combustion, , radiation and 
other causes. 

From 13 to 20 lbs. of. coal may be consumed per super¬ 
ficial foot of fire grate. 

Three-fourths of a foot of fire grate are required to 
evaporate a cubic foot of water. 































117 


THICKNESS OF BOILER IRON REQUIRED AND PRES¬ 
SURE ALLOWED BY THE LAWS OF THE UNITED 
STATES. 


PRESSURE EQUIVALENT TO THE STANDARD FOR A BOILER 42 
INCHES IN DIAMETER AND INCH THICK. 


DIAMETER. 


o 

1—* £ 
f * *rH 

H 

34-in. 

36-in. 

38-in. 

40-in. 

42-in. 

41-in. 

46-in. 


Ibs. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

Ibs. 

lbs. 

5 

169-9 

160-4 

152- 

144-4 

137-5 

131*2 

125-5 


158-5 

149-7 

141-8 

134-7 

128-3 

122-5 

117-2 

4 

135-9 

128-3 

121-6 

115-5 

110 

105- 

100- 

3% 

124-5 

117-6 

111-4 

105-9 

100-8 

96*2 

92*0 

3% 

113-2 

106-9 

101-3 

96'2 

91-7 

87-5 

83-0 

3 

101-9 

96-2 

91-2 

82-6 

82-5 

78-7 

75-1 


WROUGHT IRON FLUES. 


RESISTANCE TO COLLAPSING PRESSURE. 

(From Haswell.) 





S-i • 

. 


Xfl 

bJOa!^ 

-*n> 

rd 

<Z2 

01 

rj 

•rH rj 

£ 02 .P 

3 

b£) 

P 

01 

44 

o 

•rH 

f—j 

cs 3 £ 

«3 2 

c/2 g 
o ai p 
O ^ o' 

« 


H 




P- C/2 

In, 

Feet. 

In. 

lbs. 

6 

10 

1 

77 

417 


10 

i 

o 

385 

7 

10 

1 

o 

357 

7 % 

10 

1 

4 

542 

8 

10 

1 

5 

312 

3V 2 

10 

1 

4 

478 

9 

10 

1 

278 

'■> l A 

10 

1 

4 x 

427 

10 

12 

1. 

5 

227 

10 

12 

5 

1(1 

612 

10M 

12 

1 

4' 

337 

11 

12 

1 

5 

206 

11 

12 

5 

1 6 

557 




W 

P * 

bCOlrQ 

02 

P3 

a. 

01 

£ P-2 

*5q ai .S 

Cl 

3 

"So 

rH 

rl 

44 

02 

Cu ^ 
nj 3 2 

02 

01 

•»H 

^ X C2 

•rH 

hP 

rP 

O £ P 

w 


Ch 





pH C/3 

In. 

Feet. 

In. 

Ills. 

UK 

12 

.1 

5 

197 

UK 

12 

1 

4 

368 

12 

15 

1 

4 

239 

12 

15 

5 

1 6 

415 

12K 

15 

1 

4 

229 

13 

15 

5 

1 G 

384 

13K 

15 

1 

¥ 

212 

14 

18 

5 

1 G 

305 

MM 

18 

1 

¥ 

168 

15 

20 

5 

1 G 

276 

isM 

20 

1 

¥ 

152 

16 

20 

5 

1 G 

231 






















































118 


SHELLS OF BOILERS. 

RESISTANCE TO INTERNAL OR BURSTING PRESSURE. 

(From Haswell.) 


Diameter. 

( Zl 

Bursting Pres-sure 
per square inch. 

o 

G 

o 

H 

Single 

Riveted. 

Double 

Riveted. 

Feet. 

In. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

2 

l 

4 

573 

745 

2 6 

1 

4 

458 

596 

3 

1 

4 

382 

496 

3-4 

1 

4 

318 

414 

3*4 

5 

1 6 

398 

518 

3-6 

1 

¥ 

327 

426 

3 6 

5 

1 6 

409 

532 

4 

1 

¥ 

286 

372 

4 

5 

1 6 

358 

465 

4 6 

1 

4 

254 

331 

4-6 

5 

1 t> 

318 

413 

5 

1 

4 

229 

298 

5 

5 

1 6 

286 

372 

5*6 

1 

4 

208 

270 

5-6 

5 

1 6 

260 

338 

5*6 

3 

8 

312 

406 

6 

1 

4 

191 

248 

6 

5 

1 6 

239 

311 

6 

3 

8 

286 

372 

6-6 

5 

T<> 

220 

287 


Diameter. 

W 

Bursting Pressure 
per square inch. 

o> 

o 

H 

Single 

Riveted. 

Double 

Kiveied. 

Feet. 

in. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

7-6 

5 

1 f> 

191 

248 

7’6 

3 

8 

229 

298 

8 

5 

1 6 

179 

233 

8 

3 

8 

215 

279 

8-6 

T6 

168 

219 

8-6 

3 

8 

202 

263 

9 

5 

1 6 

159 

207 

9 

3 

8 

191 

248 

9*6 

5 

1 6 

150 

196 

9*6 

3 

8 

181 

235 

10 

5 

1 >i 

143 

186 

10 

3 

8 

172 

224 

10 

1 

2 

229 

298 

10-6 

5 

TO 

136 

177 

10-6 

3 

8 

163 

212 

10-6 

1 

2 

218 

284 

11 

3 

8 

156 

203 

11 

1 

208 

271 

11-6 

3 

8 

149 

194 

11-6 

1 

2 

199 

259 


Such allowances for wear of the plates, oxidation, etc., 
are to be made, as the character of the metal, the nature of 
the services and the circumstances of using fresh or salt 
water, etc., will render necessary. 

In riveted plates it is customary to estimate the safe ten¬ 
sile resistance of a boiler or tube, when exposed to salt 
water, at one fifth of its bursting pressure ; and, when ex¬ 
posed to fresh water alone, at one-fourth of it. 



























119 


WEIGHT AND THICKNESS OF BOILER IRON. 


^ inch weighs 5 pounds per square foot. 


T6 

66 


66 

7 X 

66 


66 

± 

66 


6; 

10 

66 


66 

T6 

66 


66 

12 H 

66 


66 

•Jr 

66 


• 6 

15 

66 


66 

T6 

44 


66 

17 H 

66 


66 

1 

2 

66 


6' 

20 

66 


66 

No. 

1 Iron 

is. • 




inch thick. 

No. 

3 

66 





d 

No. 

4 

66 




i 

66 

No. 

5 

66 





66 

No. 

7 

66 





66 


RULES FOR HEATING AND GRATE SURFACES. 

G — Fire grate surface in square feet. 

P = Number of nominal horse-power, 
h = Heating surface in square yards. 

P 2 

P = ]/ hG G= — 

h 

p 2 

h = — 

G 

For each nominal horse-power a boiler requires : 

1 cubic foot of water per hour. 

1 square yard of heating surface. 

1 square foot of fire grate surface. 

1 cubic yard'capacity. 

28 square inches flue area ; 18 inches over bridge. 

For cylindrical ^ double-flued boilers an approximate 
.rule is : 

Length X Diameter 

-—-= Nominal H. P. 

6 

Conclusions .—No fixed rule can be established as to the 
best relative proportions of grate, £fire box and tube 
surfaces, 









120 


When the quantity of fuel burnt is 50 or GO pounds per 
square foot of grate bar per hour, the combustion is nearly 
perfect ; but loss results from carbonic oxide passing 
away unconsumed with hard firing. 

A large increase in heating surface in proportion to coal 
burnt only slightly increases the economical effect. 


SOME NOTES ON BOILERS. 

To avoid the too rapid contraction of a boiler, it should 
never be blown off till the water has cooled to 150° Fahr. 

When the engine is started after standing some time, 
there is danger of the too rapid generation of the steam 
in the boiler resulting from lessened pressure ; the steam 
should, therefore, be let down considerably below the 
safety-valve pressure when the engine stops. 

When steam issues from the boiler, mixed with water, 
the boiler is said to prime, caused by impure water, 
fierce ebullition, &c. The remedies are to blow off 
steam, and to put a grating in the boiler for the spray to 
strike against when trying to find its way out. 

Scale and incrustation are to be avoided, as they cause 
the burning of the plates, the scale being a bad conductor 
of heat; also when the plates get red-hot the scale sepa¬ 
rates from the plates, steam is suddenly generated, and 
the softened iron gives way. Scale consists of salts, gyp¬ 
sum, lime, &c., and is prevented by the introduction of 
certain substances, such as caustic soda, &c. 

Boiler explosions may be due to defective material ; to 
bad construction; to overpressure, due to neglect; or to the 
safety-valve sticking; to leakages, generally at the rivets', 
or blowoff; to rapid feeding of cold water, causing sudden 
and local contraction. 

HINTS TO FIREMEN.' 

Do not get up steam too quickly. It hogs the furnace 
tubes, leads to grooving, strains the end plates, and some¬ 
times rips the rim seams of rivets at the bottom of the 
shell. Fire regularly. Keep as thick a fire as the quality 
of the coal will allow. Do not rouse the fire with a rake. 
Should the coal cake together, run a slicer in on the top of 
the bars, and gently break up the burning mass. 


12 J 


Set the feed valve so as to give a constant supply and 
keep the water up to the height indicated by the water 
level pointer. There is no economy in keeping a great 
depth of water over the furnace crowns ; while the steam 
space is reduced thereby, and the boiler rendered more 
liable to prime. Nor is there any economy in keeping a 
very little water over the furnace crowns, while the fur¬ 
naces are thereby rendered more liable to be laid bare. 

Do not place entire confidence in a glass water gauge, 
unless you know that the passages are entirely unob¬ 
structed. It does not follow that there is plenty of water 
in the boiler because there is plenty of water in the gauge 
glass. Also empty gauge glasses are sometimes mistaken 
for full ones, and explosions have resulted therefrom. Ex¬ 
amine the • test taps frequently and thoroughly, and see 
that the passages are clear. Compare the steam gauge 
and safety-valve frequently. 

Lift each safety-valve by hand in the morning before 
setting to work, to see that it is free. If there is a low- 
water safety-valve, test it occasionally by lowering the 
water to see that the valve begins to blow at the right 
point. When the boiler is laid off, examine the float and 
lever and see that they are free, and that they give the 
valve the full rise. If safety-valves are allowed to go to 
sleep they may get set fast. 

Do not empty the boiler under steam pressure, but cool 
it down with the water in. If a boiler is blown off under 
steam pressure, the plates and brickwork are left hot. The 
hot plates harden the scale, and the hot brick work hurts 
the boiler. Cold water dashed on to hot plates will cause 
severe straining by local contraction, sometimes sufficient 
to fracture the seams. 



122 


GIFFARD’S INJECTOR. 

- Quantity of water injected in gallons per hour. 
P — Pressure of steam in atmospheres. 

D = Diameter of throat in inches. 

r-^r 

D = -0158 

VP 

Q j/ F~ (63-4 D ) 2 


Diameter of Delivery in Gallons per hour with a pressure per 
throat in dec- s 9 uare inch of 


imals of an 
inch. 

30 

45 

60 

75 

90 

•1 

56 

69 

80 

89 

98 

•15 

127 

156 

180 

201 

221 

•2 

226 

278 

321 

360 

393 

•25 

354 

434 

502 

561 

615 

•3 

505 

624 

722 

807 

884 


PRESSURE OF STEAM AT DIFFERENT TEMPERA¬ 
TURES. 

Results of Experiments made by the Franklin Institute. 


Pressure 
in inches 
of 

mercury. 

Tempera¬ 
ture in 
degrees 
Fahr. 

30 . 

212° 

45 . 

... 235 

60 . 

... 250 

75 . 

... 264 

96 . 

... 275 

105 . 

... 284 

120 . 

... 291-5 


Pressure Tempera- 
in inches ture in 
of degrees 

mercury. Fahr. 

135 .... 298-5° 

150 _ 304-5 

165 .... 310 
180 .... 315-5 
195 .... 321 
210 .... 326 


Pressure 
in inches 
of 

mercury. 

Tempera¬ 
ture in 
degrees 
Fahr. 

225 

.. 331° 

240 .. 

.. 336 

255 .. 

.. 340-5 

270 . . 

.. 345 

285 .. 

.. 349 

300 ., 

352-$ 






























i23 


THE ELASTIC FORCE OF STEAM AND CORRES¬ 
PONDING TEMPERATURE OF THE WATER WITH 
WHICH IT IS IN CONTACT. 

(From Haslett.) 


Pressure on a 
Square Inch. 

Elastic Force in 
Inches of Mer¬ 
cury. 

Temperature of 
Water in De¬ 
grees of Fah¬ 
renheit. 

Volume of Steam 
compared with 
the Volume of 
Water. 


Pressure on a 
Square Inch. 

Elastic Fcrce in 

Inches of Mer¬ 

cury. 

I Temperature of 
Water in De¬ 
grees of Fah¬ 
renheit. 

Volume of Steam 

compared with 

the Volume of 

Water. 

lbs. 

14-7 

30(0 

2120 

1700 


Ibs. 

68 

138-72 

304-4 

419 

15 

3060 

212-8 

1669 


70 

142-80 

306-4 

408 

16 

33 64 

216-3 

1573 


72 

146-88 

308-4 

398 

18 

36-72 

222-7 

1411 


74 

150-96 

310-3 

388 

20 

40-80 

228-5 

1281 


76 

155-06 

312-2 

379 

22 

44-88 

2338 

1174 


78 

15914 

314-0 

370 

24 

48-96 

238-7 

1084 


80 

163 22 

315-8 

362 

26 

53 04 

243 3 

1007 


82 

167 30 

317 6 

354 

28 

57-12 

247-6 

941 


84 

171-38 

3193 

346 

30 

61-21 

251'd 

883 


86 

175"46 

3210 

339 

. 32 

65-28 

255-5 

833 


88 

179-54 

322-6 

332 

34 

69-36 

2591 

788 


10 

183-62 

324-3 

325 

36 

73-44 

262-6 

748 


92 

187-70 

325-9 

319 

38 

77-52 

265-9 

712 


94 

191-78 

327-5 

313 

40 

8160 

269-1 

679 


96 

195 86 

329 0 

307 

42 

85-68 

272-1 

649 


98 

199-92 

330-5 

301 

44 

89 76 

275-0 

622 


100 

204-01 

332-0 

275 

46 

9384 

277-8 

598 


no 

224-40 

339-2 

271 

48 

97-92 

280 5 

575 


120 

244-82 

345-8 

251 

50 

102-00 

283 2 

554 


130 

265 23 

352-1 

233 

52 

106 08 

285-7 

534 


140 

285-61 

357-9 

218 

54 

110 16 

288-1 

516 


150 

306 03 

3634 

205 

56 

114-24 

290 5 

500 


160 

326-42 

368-7 

193 

58 

118-32 

292-9 

484' 


170 

346-80 

373-6 

183 

60 

122-40 

295-6 

470 


180 

367-25 

378-4 

174 

62 

126-48 

298-1 

456 


190 

387-61 

382-9 

166 

64 

130-56 

300 3 

443 


200 

40804 

387 3 

158 

66 

134 64 

302-4 

431 



























124 


WATER. 


TO FIND THE WEIGHT OF WATER IN PIPES OF ANY 
DIAMETER 1 FOOT LONG. 

1st. Square the diameter in inches, and divide by 3. 

2d (more correctly). Square the diameter in inches, and 
multiply by 34. 

In the two following tables the weight of water has been 
reckoned at 10 pounds per gallon. 

TABLE OF THE WEIGHT OF WATER CONTAINED IN A FATHOM OF 
PIPES OF ANY DIAMETER ; ALSO THE NUMBER OF GALLONS. 


Diameter in inches. 

weight in ibs. 

No. of Gallons, 


...... 0*51 . . .. 

. -051 

. 

1 . 

2*0 _ 

. *20 

2 

8*1 

*81 

3 . 

. 18*3 

. 1*83 

4 . 

. 32*6 _ 

3*26 

5 . 

. 51*0 _ 

. 5*10 

6 . 

. 73*4 _ 

7*34 

7 . 

. 99*9 _ 

9*99 

8 . 

. 130*5 _ 

. 13*05 


9 . 165*2 . 16*52 

10 . 204*0 . 20*40 


11 . 

. 246*8 ... . 

24*68 

12 . 

. 293*7 . 

29*37 

13 . 

. 344*7 . 

34*47 

14 . 

. 399*8 

39*98 

15 . 

. 459*0 . . . . 

45*90 

16 . 

522*2 

52*22 

17 . 

. 589*5 . 

58*95 

18 . 

. 660*9 

66*09 

19 . 

. 736*4 

73*64 

20 . 

. 816*0 

81*60 

21 

. 899*6 

89*96 

22 

. 987*3 . 

98*73 

23 . 

. 1079*1 

107*91 

24 . 

. 1175*0 . 

. 117*50 


The following simple rule will be found useful to ascer¬ 
tain the weight of water in pipes : Square the diameter 
in inches ; the result will be the weight in pounds avoirdu¬ 
pois in a 3-ft. length. 



















































125 


TABLE SHOWING THE WEIGHT IN POUNDS, AND 
MEASURE IN GALLONS, OF WATER CONTAINED 
IN WELLS AND PITS OF ANY DIAMETER, FOR ONE 
FOOT IN DEPTH. 


Note.— The number of gallons is found by squaring the diameter 
in feet, and multiplying by 4-895 (the number of gallons in a cylinder 
1 ft. diameter and 1 ft. deep. 


Diameter. 

Ft. In. 

Measure in Gallons. 

Weight in tbs. 

2 0 . 

. 19*580 

. 195*80 

2 6 . 

. 30-594 

305'94 

3 0 . 

. 44-055 . 

. 440-55 

3 6 ......... 

. 60*964 . 

609*64 

4 0 . 

. 78-320 

783*20 

4 6 . 

. 99*124 

991*24 

5 0 . 

. 422*375 . 

. 1,223-75 

6 0 . 

. 176-220 

. 1,762*20 

7 0 . 

. 239*855 

. 2,398-55 

8 0 . 

.. 313*280 

. 3,132-80 

9 0 . 

. 396-495 

3.964*95 

10 0 . 

. 489-500 

. 4,895-00 

11 o . 

. 592-295 

5,922-95 

12 0 .. 

. 704-880 

. 7,048-80 

13 0 . 

. 827*255 

. 8,272-55 

14 0 

. 959-420 . 

. 9,594*20 

15 0 . 

. 1101-375 . 

. 11,013-75 

16 0 

. 1253-120 . 

. 12,531-20 

17 0 . 

. 1414-655 

. 14,146-55 

18 0 . 

1585*980 

. 15,859-80 

19 0 

... . ... 1767-095 

.... 17,670-95 

20 0 

1958-000 

. 19,580-00 


TO ASCERTAIN THE NUMBER OF GALLONS CON¬ 
TAINED IN ANY CISTERN, 

THE CUBIC CONTENTS HAVING BEEN FOUND. 

Contents in cubic feet X 7*48 
Or, contents in cubic inches X ’00433 

Contents in cubic inches 

Or, --—-— 
















































126 


TO ASCERTAIN THE PRESSURE OF WATER IN PIPES 
AT VARIOUS DEPTHS. 

KULE. 


Head of water in feet X 62*5 
144 


= pressure in lb. per sq. in. 


Example. —What is the pressure per square inch on a 
pipe having a head of water of 30 feet ? 

30 X 62-5 

--= 13‘02 pounds. 

144 


As it has been found by experiment that a cast-iron pipe • 
15 inches diameter, % inch thick, will be sufficiently strong 
for a head of 600 feet, the following rule is given to ascer¬ 
tain the thickness of metal in a pipe, when its diameter 
and the head of water are given. 


Head of water in ft. X size of pipe in in. X M 

9000 

m 


thickness 
= of metal 
in inches. 


TABLE SHOWING THICKNESS OF METAL AND 
WEIGHT PER 12 FEET LENGTH FOR DIFFERENT 
SIZES OF PIPE UNDER VARIOUS HEADS OF WATER. 


Size. 

50 Feet 
Head. j 

100 Feet 
Head. 

150 Feet 
Head. 

1 200 Feet 
Head. 

250 Feet 
Head. 

Thickness 

of 

Metal. 

Weight per 
Length. 

Thickness 

of 

Metal. 

Weight per 
Length. 

Thickness 

of 

Metal. 

Weight per j 

Length. 

1 Thickness 

of 

Metal. 

Weight per 
Length. 

Thickness 

of 

Metal. 

Weight per 
Length. 

2 

•2946 

63 

•3126 

67^ 

•33 6 

72 

•3486 

76^6 

•3666 

81 

3 

•3449 

144 

•3539 

149 

•3629 

153 

•3719 

157 

•3809 

161 

4 

•3612 

197 

•3734 

204 

•3852 

211 

•3972 

218 

•4092 

226 

6 

•3938 

315 

•4118 

330 

•4298 

345 

•4478 

361 

•4658 

377 

8 

•4224 

445 

•45041 

475 

•4744 

502 

•4984 

529 

•5224 

557 

10 

•4590 

600 

•4890, 

641 

•5190 

682 

•5490 

723 

•5790 

766 

12 

*4916 

768 

•5276 

826 

•5636 

885 

5996 

944 

"6356 

1004 

141 

•5242 

952 

•5662 

1031 

•6082 

1111 

•6502 

1191 

•6922 

i272 

16 

•5801 

1215 

•6048 

1253 

•6528 

1360 

•7008 

1463 

*74 8 

1568 

18 

•5894 

1370 

•6434 

1500 

•6974 

1630 

7514 

1761 

•8054 

1894 

20 

•6220 

1603 

•6820 

1763 

•7420 

1924 

•8020 

2086 

•8620 

2248 

24 

•6870 

2120 

•7592 

2349 

•8312 

2580 

•9032 

2811 

9'52 

3045 

30 

•7850 

3020 

•8750 

3376 

•9650 

3735 

1 0550 

4095 

1T450 

4458 

36 

•8828 

4070 

•9908 

4581 

1-0988 

5096 

1-2068 

5613 

13148 

6133 

48, 

1-0784 

6616 

1-2224 

7521 

1-3664 

8431 

1-5104 

9340 

1-6544 

10269 


Two-inch pipe in 9 feet lengths. 












































127 


STRENGTH OF MATERIALS. 


ROPES AND CHAINS. 


Cohesion of hemp fibres = 6400 lbs. per square inch of 
transverse section. For safe load , multiply the square of 
the girth by 200, and the product will be the strain in lbs. 
For cables X 120 instead of 200. For utmost strength , take 
one-fifth of the square of the girth to express the tons it 
will carry. Tarred cordage is always weaker than white ; 
for, according to Du Hamel, white is one-third more dura¬ 
ble, retains its force much longer while kept in store, and 
resists the ordinary injuries of the weather one-fourth 
longer.— {Gregory .) The greatest stress on a rope should 
not be above 700 times its weight per fathom.—( Tredgold .) 

The mean of a variety of Ropemaker’s Cards gives the 
following approximate rule : 

Breaking strain. 


for each lb. per 
fathom. 


For hemp ropes (flat or round).... 1 ton 

“ iron wire ropes, nearly.2 tons 

“ steel wire ropes, nearly. ..... .3 tons 
The working load is from one-fifth to one-seventh of 
breaking strain. 


WEIGHT AND STRENGTH OF FLAT ROPES. 


STEEL 

WIKE. 

IRON WIRE. 

HEMP OF 

equiv’t strength. 

Size in 

Wght 

Size in 

Wght 

Size in 

Wght 



inches. 

per 

lath. 

inches. 

per 

fath. 

inches. 

per 

fath. 

r " 

® fi « 

w >rH '« 

Inches. 

ft)S. 

Inches. 

lbs. 

Inches. 

lbs. 

Cvvts. 

Tons. 

by | 

18 

H by } 

30 

8* by 2\ 

! 45 

120 

46 

q tt 5 

07 « 1 

16 

H “ if 

27 

n “ si 

; 40 

108 

40 

14 

4 “ f 

24 

7 “ If 

36 

96 

36 


34 “ 1 

22 

64 “ 1| 
6 “ H 

32 

88 

80 

32 

28 

n “ * | 

121 

4 4 

ql a 11 
T6 

20 

28 



34 “ 4 

18 

54 “ 11- 

27 

72 

27 

26 

2 “ J 

10 

4 8 

3 “ & 

° 8 

16 

51 “ 

0 2 8 

26 

64 

n “ i 

8 

9l a 9 

14 

“ H 

24 

56 

24 


93 « 1 

o' 

12 

5 “ 14 

22 

48 

22 



4 i 

9 U 5 

^ 8 

1 1 « 1 

J -8 2 

10 

4 “ li 

20 

40 

20 



8 

3 

3 “ 1 

16 

32 

16 

































126 

TO FIND THE BREAKING STRAIN OF HEMP ROPES. 

circumference squared in ins. 
Breaking weight in tons =- ^ 

Example .—What is the breaking weight of a rope 8 
inches in circumference ? 

8X8 

—^— = 16 tons. 

To find the weight which may be safely appended to a 
hemp rope : 

itt circumference squared in inches. 

W = 10 - 

Example .—What weight might be safely appended to a 
hemp rope 10 inches in circumference ? 

10 2 

-— 10 tons. Answer. 

10 


TABLE OF THE WEIGHT AND STRENGTH OF CHAIN. 
Weight Weight 


Diameter. 

per 

Proof 

Diameter. 

per 

Proof 


fathom 

strength 


fathom 

strength 

Inches. 

lbs. 

Tons. 

Inches. 

lbs. 

Tons. 

Oft . 

■ 5f •• 

... 1*27 

. 1ft . 

, 76 .. 

... 29 

Of . 

. 8 .. 

... 1-83 

.u. 

84 .. 

... 32 

oft . 

. lOf . 

... 2*5 

. 1ft . 

93 .. 

... 35 

Of .... 

13 f .. 

... 4 

. If . 

102 .. 

... 38 

Oft . 

. 17 .. 

... 5 

. 1ft . 

Ill .. 

... 41 

Of . 

22 .. 

... 6 

. U ...... 

120 .. 

... 44 

Oft . 

. 26 • 

... 7*25 

.1ft. 

128 .. 

... 48 

Of . 

. 30 •• 

... 10 

. If . 

136 .. 

... 52 

013 

1 »i . 

. 36 . 

... 11*5 

.1ft. 

142 .. 

... 56 

Of . 

.42 .. 

... 13 

.If . 

148 .. 

... 60 

Oft . 

. 49 .. 

... 15 

.1ft. 

150 .. 

... 65 

1 

. f>5 .. 

... 18 

.If . 

162 . 

... 70 

1ft . 

. 60 .. 

22 

.1ft. 

171 .. 

... 75 

If . 

. 68 .. 

... 26 

2 

180 .. 

... 80 


HOW TO JJSE WIRE ROPE. 

Wire ropes used for hoisting are manufactured with 19 
wires to the strand. Those with twelve or seven wires to 
the strand are stiffer and are best adapted for guys, ferries 







































129 


and rigging. Wire ropes are made with 0 strands, with A 
centre of hemp or wire, the former being more pliable, and 
will wear better over small pulleys and drums. They are 
made of iron or steel, and sometimes up to three inches in 
diameter. 

In the machinery for wire rope the drums and sheaves 
should be made as large as possible. Wire rope is as pli¬ 
able as new hemp rope of the same strength, and can be 
used on the same sized sheaves and pulleys, but the greater 
the diameter of tire sheaves, pulleys or drums, the longer 
wire rope is found to wear. It is found that the wear in¬ 
creases with the speed. It is therefore better to increase 
the load than the speed. 

It injures wire rope to coil or uncoil it like hemp rope. 
All untwisting or kinking should be avoided. When not 
on a reel, it should be rolled on the ground like a wheel, to 
prevent kinking. Raw linseed oil applied with a piece of 
sheepskin, wool inside, will preserve wire rope. The oil 
can be mixed with equal parts of Spanish brown or lamp 
black. When the wire is under water or under groqnd, 
take mineral or vegetable tar, and add one bushel of fresh 
slacked lime to one barrel of tar, which will neutralize the 
acid. Boil well, and add saw-dust to give the mixture 
body, and then saturate the rope with it. 

Steel ropes are, to some extent, taking the place of iron 
ropes, where lightness combined with strength is required. 
In substituting a steel rope for an iron running rope, the 
object in view should be rather to increase the wear 
than to reduce the size. A safe working load is from one- 
fifth to one-seventh of the ultimate strength, according to 
speed. When wire ropes are substituted for hemp ropes, 
the same weight per fooi should be allowed for the former 
as experience has approved for the latter. 

The grooves of cast iron pulleys and sheaves should be 
filled with well seasoned blocks of hard wood set on end, 
to be renewed when worn out. This end wood will save 
wear and increase adhesion. The smaller pulleys or roll¬ 
ers, which support the ropes on inclined planes, should be 
constructed on the same plan. When large sheaves run 
with very great velocity, the grooves should be lined with 
leather, set on end, or with India rubber. This is done in 
the case of all sheaves used in the transmission of power 
between distant points by means of rope, which frequently 
run at the rate of 4,000 feet per minute. 


iaO 

ESTABLISHED 1848. 


THE HAZARD MFG. CO., 

WILKES-BARRE, PA., 

AND 87 LIBERTY STREET. NEW YORK. 

Manufacturers of Steel and Iron, Flat and Round 



BRIDGE CABLES, SHIP RIGGING, WHEELS AND 
*ROPES FOR TRANSMISSION OF POWER, GAL¬ 
VANIZED TELEGRAPH WIRE, &c. 


To meet the large and increasing demand for our Wire Ropes, we 
have recently completed our new factory at Wilkes-Barre. Penr.’a, 
with improved machinery and greatly enlarged capacity, and are 
now prepared to manufacture and supply, at short notice, Wire Hopes 
of Steel and Lon, for use on Elevators, Planes, t hafts, Bridges, Ferries. 
Ship Rigging, and for transmission of power. Our ropes are made of 
the best brands of Swedes and Norway Charcoal Iron, and superior 
quality of Steel, the u ire being drawn at our own factory. These 
works'were established in 1848, and their production has steadily in¬ 
creased. We now have machinery which is not equalled in the 
world, for capacity to make large flat or round ropes, enabling us to 
manufacture a rope of any size, and up to sixty tons weight, in one con¬ 
tinuous piece, without splicing cither the strands or rope. Our ropes are in 
general use by the large Mining, Railroad and Canal Companies in 
Pennsylvania and other States, and their superiority is unquestioned. 

We keep constantly on hand, both at our Factory and Warehouse, 
No. 87 Liberty street, New York, all sizes of Ropes, and will cut any 
1 .rngth to order at short notice. 

All sizes of Shackles, Sockets, Swivel Hooks, furnished when re¬ 
quired, securely put on, and ropes spliced. 

For prices, instructions on the use of Wire Ropes, and other infor¬ 
mation, address 

THE HAZARD MANUFACTURING CO., 

WILKES-BARRE, Pa., 
or, 87 Liberty St., New York. 










GALVANIZED IRON WIRE ROPE FOR SHIPS’ RIG¬ 
GING AND GUYS FOR DERRICKS. 

Manufactured by The Hazard Manufacturing Company, 
Wilkes-Barre, Pa. 


CHARCOAL ROPE. 

GALVANIZED WIRE 
ROPE THIMBLES. 

| Circumfer’e 
! in inches. 

1 

Weight per 
fathom in 
pounds. 

Circumfeol 
Hemp Rope 
of equal 
strength. 

1 

Breaking 

strain in 
tons of 2,000 
! pounds. 

Width of 

Score. 

Inches. 

Circumfer¬ 

ence of 
Rope. 

Inches. 

54 

264 

11 


43 

i 

f 

6* 

241 

104 


40 

f 

1 

5 

22" 

10 


35 

4 

14 

4| 

204 

9* 


33 

f 

2 

*4 

18 

9 


30 

3 

4 

24 

H 1 

16 

84 


26 

7 

J 

03 

4 

14f 

8 


23 

1 

3 

8f 

12 

74 


20 

n 

34 

34 

iof 

7 - 


16 

u 

Q3 

o* 

3f 

n 

6| 


14 

if 

4 

3 

8 

6 


12 

14 

44 

2| 

6* 



10 

1 5 

5 

24 

54 

5 


9 



a 

44 

44 


8 



2 

if 

n 

n 

i 

i 

34 1 

24 

2 

14 

3 

4 

1 

4^ 

34 

3 

91 

2 

H 


7 

5 

34 

24 

2" 

1 














Parties in ordering should state for what purpose the 
rope is to be used, and also state the kind of centre wanted, 
whether hemp or wire, and advice will be given. 

Correspondence solicited, and estimates cheerfully given. 

THE HAZARD MANUFACTURING C0„ 

WILKES-BARRE, Pa„ 
or, 87 Liberty St„ New York, 

































132 


STANDARD HOISTING ROPES WITH 19 WIRES TO 
THE STRAND. 

Manufactured by The Hazard Manufacturing Company. 


Iron. 


Trade No. 

Circumference ! 

in inches. 

Diameter. 

Weight per ft. 
in lbs. of 

Rope with 
Hemp Cen. 

Breaking 
strain in tons 
of 2,000 
pounds. 

Proper work- j 

ing load in 

tons of 2,00 ) | 

pounds. 

1 Circumference 

1 of Hemp Rope 

1 of equal 

1 strength. 

Min. size of 

d'um or 

sheave in ft. 

1 

6f 

2 5 

8 00 

74 

15 


154 

8 

2 

6 

9 

6.30 

6 > 

13 


14f 

7 

3 

5f 

If 

5.25 

54 

11 


13 

64 

4 

5 

If 

4.10 

44 

9 


12 

5“ 

5 

4f 

if 

3.65 

39 

8 


lli 

41 

6 

4 

n 

2.50 

27 

5f 


9| 

4 

7 

3f 

n 

2.00 

20 

4 


8" 

34 

8 

3f 

i 

1.58 

16 

3 


7 

3 W 

9 

2f 

i 

1.20 

HI 

24 


6 

2| 

10 

2i 

3 

T 

0.88 

8.64 

If 


5 

2| 

ioi 

2 

I 

8 

0.70 

5.13 

H 


44 

2 

104 

If 

9 

TS 

0.44 

4.27 

3 

4 



If 

lOf 

If 

1 

0.35 

3.48 

1 

■J 


34 : 

If 


Cast Steel. 


1 

6| 

2f 

8.00 

130 

26 


9 

2 

6 

2 

6.30 

100 

21 


8 

3 

54 

X t 

5.25 

78 

17 

15f 

74 

4 

5 “ 

If 

4.10 

64 

13 

144 

6“ 

5 

4f 

14 

3.65 

55 

11 

13| 

5f 

6 

4 

n 

2.50 

39 

8 

Ilf 

5^ 

7 

3f 

11 

2.00 

30 

6 

10 

44 

8 

3f 

1 

1.58 

24 

5 

! 9f 

4' 

9 

2f 

-1 

1.20 

20 

4 

8 

3f 

10 

2i 

i 

0.88 

13 

3 

6f 

34 

io± 

2 

f 

0.70 

9 

2 

5f 

3 

104 

If 

A 

0.44 

6| 

if 

4f 

2f 

lOf 

If 

1 

0.35 

5| 

l 1 

44 

2 


Note. — I he weight of Wire Centre Ropes is 10 per cent, more than 
that of Ropes with Hemp Centres. 









































133 


TRANSMISSION AND STANDING ROPES WITH 7 
WIRES TO THE STRAND. 

Manufactured by The Hazard Manufacturing Company 


Iron. 


Trade No. 

o> 

o 

fl 

£ 

£ 

a 

g 

"6 

Diameter. 

Weight per ft. 
in lbs. of 

Rope with j 
Hemp Cen. 1 

1 

Breaking 
strain in tons' 

of 2,000 

pounds. 

Proper work- 

I ing load in 

tons of 2,000 

pounds. 

Circumference 
of Hemp Rope 
of equal 
strength. 

11 

"liT 

U 

3.37 

36 

9 

10f 

12 

4* 

If 

2.77 

30 

7j 

10 

13 

8* 

u 

2.28 

25 

6* 

H 

14 

3| 

H 

1.82 

20 

5 

8 

15 

3 

i 

1.50 

16 

4 

7 

16 

2| 

1 

1.12 

12.3 

3 

6* 

17 

2f 

f 

0.88 

8.8 

n 

H 

18 

2* 

H 

0.70 

7.6 

2 

5 

19 

If 

f 

0.57 

5.8 

H 

H 

20 

If 

A 

0.41 

4.1 

i 

4 

21 

if 

i 

0.31 

2.83 

f 

H 

22 

H 

T% 

0.23 

2.13 

2 

2f 

23 

if 

f 

0.19 

1.65 


2% 

24 

l 

A 

0.16 

1.38 

. 

H 

25 

1 

A 

0.125 

1.03 


2 


Cast Steel. 


11 

1 4f 

n 

3.37 

1 67 

16 

I 15 

12 

4* 

if 

2.77 

55 

12f 

13 

13 

3f 


2.28 

45 

10 

12 

14 

3^ 


1.82 

36 

8 

lOf 

15 

1 

1.50 

30 

61 

10 

16 

! 2# 

| 

1.12 

22 

5^ 

8* 

17 

2| 


0.88 

17 

31 

n 

18 1 

®i 

ff 

0.70 

131 

3 

61 

19 

If 

f 

0.57 

10 

n 

51 

20 

If 

A 

0.41 

8 

if 

5" 

21 | 

If 


0.31 

6 

H 

4f 

23 

If 

1 

0.19 

4 

i 

3f 

24 1 

1 

A 

0.16 

3 

f 

H 



































134 


SPLICING WIRE ROPE. ( Hallidie.) 

About 84 feet of rope is required to put in a good, smooth, 
long splice. The wire ropes employed in these ropeways 
are made six strands of seven wires each, and a core or 
heart; as there are two rope ends to splice together, there 
will consequently be twelve strands to be tucked in. Opera¬ 
tors usually tie the stops that mark the length of rope, 
about where the centre of the splice will be. In this case 
the usual way is to unlay each rope up to that point, and 
place the strands of rope A between the strands of rope B, 
the core or hearts of the ropes A and B being cut off so that 
the cores of the ropes abut against each other. There will be 
then 42 ft. of strands each side of the stop,as is shown in Fig. 1 



nr XU B3 nc J3* 



n g .s. 



It is important that each strand should be in its proper 
place, so that none of them cross other strands, or that 
two strands be not where one strand should be (by placing 
your fingers between each other in natural position, this 
will be understood). Then strand No 1 of rope A is un¬ 
laid, and strand No. 1 of rope B follows close, and is laid 
snugly and tightly without a kink or bend in its place, 
until within seven feet of the end; a temporary seizing is 
then put on securing ropes and strands at this point. 
Strand No. 1 of rope A is then cut off, leaving it seven 
feet long. Then strand No. 2 of rope A is unlaid, and 
strand 3 of rope B is laid in its place to within twenty-one 
feet of its end. Strand No. 3 of rope A is unlaid, and 
strand No. 3 of rope B is lain in its place, within thirty- 



135 


five feet of end. By this time you have reached within 
seven feet of the centre, and reversing the operation, unlay 
strand No. 4 of rope B, and lay in its place strand No. 4 
of rope A, to within seven feet of its end; unlay No. 5 of 
rope B, and lay in No. 5 of rope A, to within twenty-one 
feet of its end; finally, unlay No. 6 of rope B, and lay in 
its place No. 6 of rope A, to within thirty-five feet of its 
end. The strands are now all laid in their places and 
seized down for the time being, the ends are cut off, as 
with the first strand, to seven feet in length, and present 
the appearance as in Fig. 2. 

The next operation is to tuck the ends, and we will pro¬ 
ceed to tuck in B 1. It will be remembered that the ropes 
are made of six strands, laid around a core or heart, 
usually of hemp, of the same size. Two clamps (Fig. 3) 
made for this purpose are fastened on the rope so as to 
enable the operator to untwist the rope sufficiently to open 
the strands and permit the core to be taken out (see dia¬ 
gram), which is cut away, leaving a space in the centre of 
the rope; the strand B 1 is placed across A 1, and put in 
the centre of the rope in place of the extracted core, form¬ 
ing in fact a new core. A flat-nosed T-shaped needle used 
in splicing, the point of which is about one-half inch wide 
by three-sixteenths of an inch thick, rounded off to an 
edge, is well adapted to this purpose. The strand B 1 is 
laid in its entire length, the core being cut off exactly at 
the extremity of strand B 1, so that when the rope is en¬ 
closed around the inserted strand, the ends of the strand 
and core should abut. If there is much space left in the 
centre of the rope without a core, the rope is liable to lose 
its proper form and some of the strands fall in, exposing 
the projecting strands to undue wear. The same opera¬ 
tion is performed with A 1, running the other way of the 
rope, and so on until all the strands are tucked in, which, 
if properly done, will leave the rope as true and round and 
as strong as any other part. 

Other operators prefer to start from the end of one rope 
and consequent end of splice. The operation is about the 
same, but the experience of the writer justifies him in say¬ 
ing that more care has to be used in bringing all the strands 
to an even tension in the parts spliced. Other variations 
in detail are made according to the fancy or practice of 
the splicer, but after making a few successful splices in 
manner above described, the operator can afterward vary 
to suit himself. 


136 


TO FIND THE ULTIMATE TRANSVERSE STRENGTH 
OF BEAMS. 

1.—Beam supported at both ends, and loaded in middle: 
Let L = length in inches. 

B — breadth “ 

D - - depth “ 

W = breaking weight in lbs. 
f 1672 for English Oak. 


M := { 


1556 

1013 

1632 

1341 

000 

9000 

6000 


beech, 
elm. 

pitch pine, 
red pine, 
larch. 

wrought iron, 
cast iron. - 


„ T D 2 X B X 4 X M . „ t 4 D X B X D X M 

W — —? i or VV ; - T -— 


These rules show how to find the weight that will break 
the beams ; when the weight that? may be safely placed 
upon them is not more than one-third for a steady, or 
one-sixth for a moving or suddenly applied load ; and in 
the case of timber, beams that have to bear a permanent 
load should not be more than one-tenth, in order to allow 
for the effect of decay. 


STRENGTH OF ROLLED IRON BEAMS. 


B W = Breaking weight distributed in tons. 


Depth 

Size of 

B. 

W. FOR DIFFERENT 

SPANS. 

of Beam. 

flange. 









Inches. 

In. In. 

10 ft. 

15 ft. 

20 ft. 

25 ft. 

5 . 

2 XI 

. 6.6 . 

. — 

.... — 


6 . 

nxh 

. 10 . 

. 6.6 ... 

.... 5 

. —. 

7 . 

3 XI 

. 14 . 

. 9 .. 

.... 7 

. 5 

8 . 

3 XI 

. 20 . 

. 13 ... 

... 10 

. 8 

9 . 

4 Xf 

.36 . 

. 24 ... 

.... 18 

. 14 

10 . 

4 2 X 1 

. 60 . 

. 40 ... 

... 30 

. 24 







































137 


STRENGTH OF COLUMNS. 


TABLE OF PRACTICAL FORMULA BY WHICH TO DETERMINE THE 
AMOUNT OF WEIGHT A COLUMN OF GIVEN DIMENSIONS WILL 
SUPPORT, IN POUNDS. 


__ , , , . . 1T7 15300 l b 3 

For a rectangular column of cast iron.W = ^ ^ 

17800 l b s 

For a rectangular col. of malleable iron, W =■ ^ _j_ ^6 l 2 


For a rectangular column of oak. 


.W = 


3960 l 6 3 


4 b 2 + 5 Z 2 
9562 d 4 

For a solid cylinder of cast iron.W = 4 ^2 _|_ ^2 


11125 d 4 

For a solid cylinder of malleable iron.W = 4^2 _|_ jg p 

2470 d 4 

For a solid cylinder of oak.W = 4 ^ 2 + .5 J 2 


Note. —W = the weight the column will support in 
lbs.; b — the breadth in inches; l — the length in feet; d 
= the diameter in inches. 


APPROXIMATE RULE FOR THE STRENGTH OF REC¬ 
TANGULAR PILLARS OF WOOD. 

(. Molesworth .) 


L = Length of pillar. 

B — Breadth of ditto. 

W = Crushing weight in lbs. per square inch of section. 
Safe load per square inch of sectional area = —. 


Values of YV when L. or Length — 

Material. ,-*-... ’ 

8 B. 12 B. 24 B. 36 B. 48 B 

Oak.5500 ... 4600 ... 2700 ... 1800 ... 900 

Ash . 6000 ... 5000 ... 3000 ... 2000 ... 1000 

Red pine.4800 ... 4000 ... 2400 ... 1600 ... 800 




















138 


RELATIVE STRENGTH OF MATERIALS IN LONG 
COLUMNS. 


Cast Iron being assumed as. 1000 

Wrought Iron.=1745 

Cast Steel. :.-- 2518 

% Oak. = 109 

Red Deal.= 78^ 


RELATIVE STRENGTH OF ROUND AND FLAT ENDS 
IN LONG COLUMNS. 


Both ends rounded, 1 strength. — 1 

One end flat and firmly fixed, 1 strength. 2 

Both ends flat and firmly fixed. 3 


RELATIVE STRENGTH OF SECTION IN LONG SOLID 
COLUMNS. 


Cylindrical. 100 

Triangular. 110 

Square. 93 


HOLLOW COLUMNS. 

The strength nearly equals the difference between that 
of two solid columns, the diameters of which are equal to 
the external and internal diameters of the hollow one. 


RELATIVE BREAKING WEIGHT PER SQUARE INCH 
OF WROUGHT AND CAST IRON PILLARS. 


Ratio of least thickness to height.. 

a u u 

U U U 

u u 

u (t a 



Wrought. 

Cast. 


Tons. 

Tons. 

1 

1 0 

15.5 

28.6 

1 

2 0 

14.2 

17.9 

] 

2 0' 

13.0 

13.0 

1 

3 0 

12.4 

11.0 

1 

40 

10.5 

7.1 

















139 


SAFE LOAD FOR HOLLOW CAST IRON PILLARS. 

Thick- LENGTH OF PILLAR 


of 


diameter. 

8 ft. 

10 ft. 

12 ft. 

14 ft. 

16 It. 

metal. 


Inches. 

Tons. 

Tons. 

Tons. 

Tons. 

Tons. 


' 

3 

4.0 

3.2 

2.3 

L8 

1.4 




5.9 

5.1 

3.6 

2.7 

2.3 



4 

8.1 

6.1 

4.7 

3.6 

3.4 

A in. 


4K 

10.6 

8.1 

6.5 

5.0 

4.4 



5 

13.3 

10.4 

8.3 

6.7 

5.4 




15.3 

12.9 

10.5 

8.5 

7.0 


l 

6 

19.0 

15.5 

12.7 

9.5 

8.7 



3 

4.7 

3.5 

2.6 

2.0 

1.6 




7.1 

5.3 

4.2 

3.2 

2.5 



4 

9.2 

7.3 

5.6 

4.4 

3.9 



4 ^ 

12.8 

9.9 

7.7 

6.1 

5.5 

% in. 


5 

16.1 

12.7 

9.1 

8.1 

7.0 



&X 

18.7 

15.7 

12.8 

10.4 

8.8 



f> 

23.2 

19.0 

15.6 

12.8 

10.6 




86.9 

22.4 

18.7 

15.2 

13.0 


. 

7 

30.7 

26.0 

21.9 

18.5 

15.6 



3 

5.4 

3.8 

2.8 

2.2 

1.7 



3/4 

8.1 

6.2 

4.4 

3.5 

2.6 



4 

11.3 

8.5 

6.5 

4.8 

3.8 



4)£ 

14.9 

11.5 

8.9 

7.2 

6.0 

y A in J 


5 

18.8 

14.8 

11.7 

9.0 

7.7 



&X 

21.8 

18.4 

14.9 

12.1 

10.2 



6 

27.2 

22.3 

18.3 

15.0 

12.5 




31.6 

26.3 

21.9 

17.8 

15.3 



7 

36.1 

30.6 

25.8 

21.7 

18.4 



4 

13.9 

10.4 

8.0 

6.4 

4.8 



434 

18.5 

14.3 

11.1 

8.8 

7.1 



5 

23.6 

18.6 

14.8 

11.9 

9.6 



& A 

27.6 

23.2 

18.9 

15.3 

12.7 



6 

34.5 

28.3 

23.2 

19.1 

15.9 

1 in. \ 


6)4 

40.3 

33.6 

28.0 

22.8 

19.6 

1 

7 

46.2 

39.1 

33.0 

27.8 

23.6 



7K 

52.2 

44.9 

38.3 

32.6 

27.9 



8 

58.3 

50.7 

43.8 

37.7 

32.5 



8 34 

64.3 

56.5 

49.4 

42.9 

37.3 



9 

70.5 

62.7 

55.3 

48.1 

42.3 











140 


TABLE OF THE RESISTANCE OF MATERIALS TO 
BREAKING ACROSS. 


IN POUNDS AVOIRDUPOIS PER SQUARE INCH. 


( Rankine .) 

Note.— The modulus of rupture is eighteen times the load which is 
required to break a bar of one inch square, supported at two points 
one foot apart, and loaded in the middle between the points of sup¬ 
port. 

Resistance to 
breaking or modulus 


Materials. of rupture. 

Sandstone. 1,100 to 2,360 

Slate . 5,000 

Iron, cast, open-work beams, average. 17,000 

Iron, cast, solid. 40,000 

Ash.12,000 to 14,000 

Beech. 9,000 to 12,000 

Birch. 11,700 

Elm. 6,000 to 9,700 

Red Pine. 7,100 to 9,540 

Spruce . 9,900 to 12,300 

Lignum VitaB. 12,000 

Oak, British and Russian.10,000 to 13,600 

“ Dantzic. 8,700 

“ American Red. 10,600 

Sycamore. 9,600 


GREATEST SAFE LOAD, PER SUPERFICIAL FOOT. 


On Granite piers is.40 tons. 

Portland stone piers.13 “ 

Bath stone piers. 8 “ 

Brickwork in cement. 3 “ 

Rubble masonry. 2 “ 

Lime concrete foundation. 2\ “ 


[The height of brick or stone piers should never exceed 
12 times their least thickness at base.] 
























141 


NOTES ON STRENGTH OF MATERIALS. 

(From Molesworth.) 


Wei timber is not so strong as dry ; in some cases it is 
not half the strength of dry. 

Cold-blast iron is stronger than hot-blast. - 

Annealing cast-iron diminishes its tensile strength. 

Re-melting (up to ten or twelve meltings) or prolonged 
fusion, increases the strength and density of cast iron. 
Softer irons will best bear re-melting. 

Indirect strains reduce the tensile strength of cast iron. 

Additional strength should be given to cast iron girders 
that take the load on one side of the bottom flange. 

The tenacity of cast iron is only one-third that of wrought 
iron, and should not be subjected to more than one-skcth 
of the breaking strain. 

Tensile strain on wrought iron should not exceed one- 
fourth of the breaking weight. 

Annealing iron wire diminishes its strength. 

High temperature in casting is injurious to gun-metal. 

Plated webs are more economical than braced webs in 
shallow girders, or near the ends of long girders. In small 
lattice girders it is better to make the lattices uniform 
throughout. 







142 


MACHINERY, &c. 


SHAFTING. 

Shafts are subject to two forces—transverse strain and 
torsion. 

When the machines to be driven are below the shaft, 
there is a transverse strain on the shaft, due to the weight 
of the shaft itself, of the pulley and tension of the belt. 
Sometimes the power is taken off horizontally on one side, 
in which case the tension of *the belt produces a horizon¬ 
tal transverse strain, while the weight of the pulley acts 
with the weight of the shaft to produce a vertical trans¬ 
verse strain. When the machinery to be driven is placed 
on the floor above the shaft, the tension of the belt pro¬ 
duces a transverse strain in opposite direction to that due 
to the weight of the shaft and pulley. The transverse 
strain diminishes as the velocity of the shaft increases. 

The torsional strength of shafts or their resistance to 
breaking by twisting, is proportional to the cube of their 
diameter. Their stiffness or resistance to bending is pro¬ 
portional to the fourth power of their diameters, and 
varies inversely in proportion to their load and also to the 
cube of the length of their spans. 


STRENGTH OF WROUGHT IRON SHAFTING. 

D = Diameter of shaft in inches. 

H = Indicated horse-power to be transmitted. 

N = Number of revolutions per minute. 


f~83 H D 3 N 

i> = f H=-8T 

in crank shafts and prime movers. 

f65TT D 3 N 

I> = f N ’ H = 


for ordinary shafting. 


83 






143 


CO EFFICIENTS OF FRICTION IN AXLES. 


Axle. 

Bearing. 

Dry. 

Greasy and 

Wet. 

Ordinary Lu- ! 

brication. 

Lubricated i 

Continuously. 

I 

Lard and 

Plumbago. 

Fatty Matter. 

Bell Metal. 

Bell Metal, 

<< a 



•097 




Cast Iron. 



•049 


. 

Wrought Iron. 

a 

25 

T9 

•07 

•05 

•05 

T1 


Cast Iron. 

07 


Cast Iron. 

U (( 


•18 

•07 

•05 


T4 

Bell Metal. 

1 19 

T6 

1 -07 

05 


T6 

Wrought Iron. 
Cast Iron. 

Lignum Vitae. 

T9 

I T2 


T8 


TO 

•09 

' U 1 

T4 

Lignum Vitae. 

U <( 

Cast Iron. 


•n 

T5 

Lignum Vitae. 

1 

•oi 







FRICTIONAL RESISTANCE OF SHAFTING. 


{Webber.) 

K — Co-efficient of friction. 

W = Work absorbed in foot-pounds. 

P == Weight of shafting and pulleys -J- resultant stress on 
belts. 

H = Horse-power absorbed. 

D — Diameter of journals in inches. 

R = Number of revolutions per minute. 

In ordinary oiling 
W= .0182 P D. 

H = .000000556 P D R. 

K = .066. 

In .continuous oiling 
W = .0112 P D. 

H = .000000339 DPR. 

K = .044. 

As a rough approximation, 100 feet of shafting, 3 inches 
diameter, making 120 revolutions per minute, requires 1 
horse-power. 

Pressure on bearings should not exceed 750 pounds per 
square inch, measured axially. 

Cast iron bearings wear well if the pressure does not ex¬ 
ceed 100 pounds per square inch, or velocity 150 feet per 
minute. 







































144 


STRENGTH OF SHAFTING TO RESIST TORSION. 

L = Length of lever in inches, or radius of wheel at 
which force is applied. 

F = Force applied in pounds. 

D — Diameter of shaft in inches. 

K= 1700 for wrought iron; 3200 for cast steel; 1500 for 
cast iron. 

ITT D 3 K 

D - f K ; F = L 

Example .—Required to find the diameter of a wrought 
iron shaft for a drum having 2 tons pulling on it at 30 inch 
radius. L = 30; F = 2 X 2240 = 4480; K = 1700; then 

f 30 X 4480 

D = f i 7 qo = 4.3 inches. 


BELTING AND VELOCITY OF PULLEYS. 

Belts should not be made tighter than necessary. Over 
half the trouble from broken pulleys, hot boxes, &c., can 
be traced to the fault of tight belts, while the machinery 
wears much more rapidly than when loose belts are em¬ 
ployed. 

The speed of belts should not be more than 3000 or 3750 
feet per minute. 

The motion of driving should run with and not against 
the laps of the belts. 

Leather belts should be run with the strongest or flesh 
side on the outside and the grain (hair) side on the inside, 
nearest the pulley, so that the strongest part of the belt 
may be subject to the least wear. It will also drive 30 per 
cent, more than if run with the flesh side nearest the pulley. 
The grain side adheres best because it is smooth. Do not 
expose leather belts to the weather. 

When the length of a belt cannot be conveniently ascer¬ 
tained by measuring around the pulleys with a tape line, 
the following rule will be serviceable : 

Add the diameters of the two pulleys together and di¬ 
vide by 2; multiply this quotient by 3}^, and to the pro¬ 
duct add twice the distance between the centres of the 
shafts; the sum will be the length required. 







145 


The transmitting power of a double belt is to that of a 
single belt as 10 is to 7. In ordering pulleys the kind of 
belt to be used should always be specified. 

The safe working tension of a belt is assumed to be 45 
pounds per inch of width, which is equal to a velocity of 
about 60 square feet per minute per horse-power. 

To find the horse-power a single belt can transmit, the 
size of the pulley and the width of the belt being given: Let 

C = Circumference in inches of pulley. 

D -- Diamete* 

R — Revolutions per minute. 

W = Width of belt in inches. 

H == Horse-power that can be transmitted by the belt. 


DRW 
or H ~ 2750 


CRW 
H = 8640 


To find the width of belt required when the horse-power 
to be transmitted and the size of the pulley are given: 

H X 2750 

w = Hhr- 

The horse-power and width of belt being given, to find 
the diameter of pulley: 

H X 2750 
D — RW 

The horse-power, diameter of pulley and width of belt 
being given, to find the number of revolutions necessary: 

H X 2750 
R — D W 

The above rules are only applicable when the pulleys 
are of equal diameters. When they are of unequal diame¬ 
ters so that the points of contact are unequal, these rules 
must be modified accordingly. 

V == Velocity of belt in feet per minute. 

H = Horse-power transmitted by belt. 

W = Width of single belting. 


33000 X H 
V 


x 







146 


S — Strain on belting in lbs. - x-f kx 
k = 1.1 when arc of belt contact of driven pulley = .40 
of circumference; .77 when arc of contact = .50 cir¬ 
cumference; .62 when arc of contact — .60 circum¬ 
ference. 

W - .02 X S 

An approximate rule for single belting is: 

1100 X H 


1100 X H 

v=^v— 

WY 

H = 1100 

To find the velocity of the driven pulley when the di¬ 
ameter of the driver is given: 

D = Diameter of driver, 
d = Diameter of driven. 

R — Number of revolutions of driver, 
r = Number of revolutions of driven. 

D R 
r = ~d 

To find the size of a small pulley when the speed is given: 


D R 



In a train of pulleys the final velocity is = 

RXDXP'XP" 
r — dXcl'Xd" 

That is, multiply the number of revolutions per minute 
of the first driver, its diameter and the diameters of all 
the driving pulleys together; multiply also the diameters 
of all the driven pulleys together and divide the product 
of the driven pulleys into the product of the drivers; the 
quotient will be the speed of the last driven pulley in 
revolutions per minute. 





147 


TEETHED WHEELS. 


All-teethed wheels have what is called a pitch line, which 
may be said to be the line of contact, if *the wheels were 
reduced to plain cylindrical wheels. If teethed wheels 
worked close against one another, this*Jpitch line would 
naturally be the line running through the centre of the 
teeth parallel to the circumference, but as there is always 
a little play given to the teeth, the pitch line forms itself 
a little further towards the outside of the wheel. It is 
usually about or nearly f of the length of the teeth 
from the bottom to the top of the tooth. The pitch is the 
distance from centre to centre of two teeth on the pitch 
line. The pitch is found by dividing the length of a tooth 
by .70 or the thickness by .48. To find the length of a 
tooth multiply the pitch by .70, and to find the thickness 
multiply by .48. The width of teeth in small pitches is 
generally twice the pitch and in large three times the pitch. 



To calculate the strength of teeth, let 
B = Breadth of teeth in inches. 

P — Pitch of teeth in inches. 

V = Velocity of pitch line in feet per second. 
H Horse-power which may be transmitted. 


H = .06 P 2 V B 


p=V 


H 


.06 V B 


H 


V .06 P 2 B 


H 

B = .06 P 2 V 









148 


Example .—What is the power of a wheel, the teeth of 
which are 6 in. wide, 1.35 in. thick, and 2.25 in. long, re¬ 
volving at the rate of 3 feet per second ? 

When the teeth are 2.25 in. long, the pitch is 2.25 -4- .75 
= 3, and the square of the pitch is 3 X 3 =9; then 
.06 X 9 X 3 X 9 — 9.72 horse-power. 


WORK. 

According to Morin, a man laboring ten hours a day 


will perform the following units of work: 

Raising material with a wheelbarrow on ramps. 72 1 

Throwing earth to a height of five feet. 470 

A man laboring eight hours a day: 

Raising his own body.4250 

Drawing or pushing horizontally.3120 

Pushing and drawing alternately in a vertical direction 2380 

Turning a handle.2600 

Working with his arms and legs as in rowing.4000 

A man laboring six hours a day: 

Raising material with a pulley.1560 

Raising material with the hands.1470 


Raising material upon the back and returning empty. 1126 


WORK OF ANIMALS. 


A horse, in a common pumping engine.17,550 

A mule, ditto.11,700 


The following memoranda are by the author of a “Gloss¬ 
ary of Terms used in the Coal Trade of Northumberland 
and Durham :” 

The average day’s work of a young barrowman from 17 
to 21 years of age, when putting alone and working 12 
hours a day on level road, laid with bridge rails, and with 
tubs having flanged wheels, 10 in. diameter, is equal to: 

lbs. pushed 
one foot. 

1 empty tub = 3 cwt. pushed 8280 yards = 8.346,240 

1 full tub = 10 cwt. pushed 8280 yards = 27,820,800 


Total day’s work — 


36,167,040 














149 


And taking friction at ^ part, the mean permanent force 
exercised by the barrowman for 12 hours is equal to 556,416 
lbs. raised 1 foot in 12 hours, or 773 lbs. raised 1 foot in 
one minute. 

Mr. Nicholas Wood, in a paper read before the North of 
England Institute of Mining Engineers, said the useful 
work performed by horses at several North of England 
collieries averaged 31.93 tons conveyed by each horse one 
mile per day. At two collieries on a wagon way above 
ground, it averaged 116.66 tons, and in several collieries in 
South Wales 13.476 tons. He concluded that a horse was 
capable of exerting a force of 120 lbs. while traveling at 
the rate of two and three miles an hour, and that he was 
capable of continuing that exertion for ten hours. 



150 


SPECIFIC GRAVITY, WEIGHT AND PROPER¬ 
TIES OF MATERIALS, &c. 


The specific gravity of a body is its weight in proportion 
to an equal bulk of pure water, at a standard temperature 
The standard temperature is 62° Fahr. = 16.670 Cent. A 
cubic inch of water weighs 252.456 troy grains, the tem¬ 
perature being 62° Fahr., and the height of the barometri¬ 
cal column 30 inches ; and 7,000 troy grains are equivalent 
to one pound avoirdupois. Thence it follows that a cubic 
foot of water would weigh 997,136 ounces. 

To find the specific gravity of a solid heavier than water: 
Weigh the body both in air and in water ; to the weight in 
air annex 3 ciphers, and divide by the difference of weight. 

To find the specific gravity of a solid lighter than water: 
Attach to it another body heavy enough to sink it, weigh 
severally the compound mass, and the heavier body in air 
and water, and say : As the difference of weights lost in 
water is to the weight of the given body in air, so is the 
specific gravity of water to that of the given body. 

To find the specific gravity of a fluid: Weigh both in 
and out of the fluid a solid (insoluble) of known specific 
gravity ; then say : As the weight of the solid to that lost 
in the fluid, so is the specific gravity of the former to that 
of the latter. 

The weight of a cubic foot of water at a temperature of 
60° is 1000 ounces avoirdupois, and the specific gravity of 
a body, water being 1000, shows the weight of a cubic foot 
of that body in ounces avoirdupois. Then, if the magni¬ 
tude of the body be known, its weight can be computed, 
or if its weight be known, its magnitute can be calculated, 
provided we know its specific gravity, or of the magnitude, 
weight and specific gravity, any two being known, the 
third may be found. 

To find the magnitude of a body from its weight: Say, as 
the specific gravity is to its weight in ounces, so is one 
cubic foot to its magnitude in feet. 

To find the weight of a body from its magnitude: Say, as 
one cubic foot is to its magnitude in feet, so is its specfic 
gravity to its weight in ounces. 



151 


THE WEIGHT OF DIFFERENT SUBSTANCES. 


Weigh t 

Weight of a Weight of a Number of a 

Name of Body. cubic foot. cubic inch. of cubic cubic 

/- A -s /- A -v inches yard in 

In oz. In lbs. In oz. In tbs. in a lb. tons. 



1. 

2. 

3. 

4. 

5. 

6. 

Platina. 

..19500 .. 

.. 1218.75 . 

..11 284 .. 

. .7053 . 

.. 1.417 

_ 

Copper, cast. 

.. 8788 ., 

.. 549.25 . 

.. 5.086 .. 

. .3178 . 

. 3.146 

— 

Copper, sheet. 

8915 .. 

. 557.18 . 

.. 5.159 .. 

. .3225 . 

. 3.103 

— 

Brass, cast. 

.. 839G .. 

.. 524.75 . 

.. 4.852 .. 

. .3037 . 

. 3 293 

— 

Iron, cast. 

.. 7271 .. 

. 454 43 . 

.. 4.203 .. 

. .263 . 

. 3.802 

— 

Iron, bar. 

. 7631 .. 

. 476 93 . 

.. 4.410 .. 

. .276 . 

. 3.623 

— 

Lead. 

.11344 .. 

. 709.00 . 

.. 6 456 .. 

. .4103 . 

.. 2/37 

— 

Steel, soft. 

.. 7833 .. 

. 489.56 . 

.. 4 527 .. 

. .2833 . 

.. 3.530 

— 

Steel, hard. 

,. 7816 .. 

. 488.50 . 

.. 4.517 .. 

. .2827 . 

.. 3.537 

— 

Zinc, cast. 

. 7190 .. 

. 449.37 . 

.. 4.156 .. 

. .26 . 

.. 3.845 

— 

'J in, cast. 

. 7292 .. 

. 455.75 . 

.. 4.215 .. 

. .2636 . 

.. 3.790 

— 

Bismuth. 

. 9880 .. 

. 619.50 . 

.. 5.710 .. 

. .3585 . 

.. 2.789 

— 

Gun Metal. 

. 8784 .. 

. 549.00 . 

.. 5.0775.. 

. .3177 . 

. 3.147 

— 

Sand. 

„ 1520 .. 

. 95.00 . 

. .8787.. 

. .055 . 

. 18190 

... 1.145 

Coal. 

1250 .. 

. 78.12 . 

.. .7225.. 

. .0452 . 

.. 22.120 

... 0.941 

Brick . 

2 00 .. 

. 125.00 . 

.. 1.156 .. 

. .0723 . 

,. 13.824 

... 1.506 

Stone, paving. 

. 2416 .. 

. 151.00 . 

.. 1.396 .. 

. .0873 ., 

.. 11.443 

... 1.820 

Stone, Bristol. 

. 2554 .. 

. 159.62 . 

.. 1.478 .. 

. .0923 .. 

,. 10.825 

... 1.924 

Grindstone. 

. 2143 .. 

. 133.94 . 

.. 1.240 .. 

. .07751., 

.. 12.901 

... 1.614 

Chalk, British. 

. 2781 .. 

. 173.81 . 

.. 1.609 .. 

. .1005 ., 

.. 9.941 

... 2 095 

Jet. 

. 1259 .. 

. 78.69 . 

.. 0.729 .. 

. .04553.. 

.. 21.959 

...0.948 

Salt. 

2130 .. 

. 133.12 . 

.. 1.233 .. 

. .07704.. 

,. 12.980 

... 1.604 

Slate. 

. 2672 .. 

. 167.00 . 

.. 1.514 .. 

. .0967 .. 

.. 10.347 

...2.012 

Marble. 

. 2742 .. 

. 171.37 . 

.. 1.585 ... 

. .0991 .. 

,. 10 083 

... 2.065 

White Lead. 

. 3160 . 

. 197.50 . 

.. 1.826 .. 

. .1143 .. 

,. 8.750 

, — 

Glass. 

. 2880 .. 

. 180.00 . 

.. 1.664 ... 

. .1042 .. 

. 9.600 

... - 

Tallow. 

. 945 . 

. 59.06 .. 

.. .5462.., 

. .0342 .. 

. 29.258 

. — 

Cork. 

. 240 .. 

. 15.00 ., 

.. .138 ... 

. .0087 .. 

.115.200 

... — 

Larch'. 

. 544 .. 

. 34.00 .. 

.. .315 ... 

. .0197 .. 

. 50.823 

... — 

Elm. 

. 556 .. 

. 34.75 .. 

.. .321 ... 

, .0201 . 

. 49.726 

... — 

Pine, pitch. 

. 660 .. 

. 41.25 .. 

,. .382 ... 

.024 .. 

. 41.890 

... — 

Beech. 

. 696 .., 

. 43.50 .. 

. .403 ... 

.0252 .. 

. 39.724 

... - 

Teak. 

. 745 ... 

. 46.50 .. 

. .431 ... 

.027 .. 

. 37.113 , 

... — 

Ash. 

760 .., 

. 47.50 .. 

. .440 ... 

.0275 .. 

. 36.370 , 

, — 

Mahogany.. . 

. 852 ... 

. 53.25 .. 

. .493 ... 

.0308 .. 

. 32.449 , 

... 

Oak. 

. 970 ... 

60.62 .. 

. .561 ... 

.0351 .. 

. 2-1.505 . 

... - 

Oil of Turpentine. 

. 870 ... 

54.37 .. 

. .503 ... 

.0315 .. 

. 31.771 . 

... — 

Olive Oil. 

. 915 ... 

57.18 .. 

. .529 ... 

.0331 .. 

. 30.2 JO . 

... - 

Linseed Oil. 

, 932 ... 

58.25 .. 

. .539 ... 

.0337 .. 

. 29.665 . 

.. — 

Spirits, proof.. 

, 927 ... 

57.93 .. 

. .536 ... 

.03352.. 

. 29.288 . 

.. — 

Water, distilled. 

1000 .. 

62.50 .. 

. .578 ... 

.03617.. 

. 27.648 . 

.. 0.753 

Water, sea. 

, 1028 ... 

64.25 .. 

. .594 ... 

.0372 ... 

. 26.894 . 

.. 0.774 

Tar. 

1015 ... 

63.43 ... 

. .587 ... 

.0367 •• 

27.242 . 

. , — 

Vinegar. 

1026 ... 

64.12 ... 

. .593 ... 

.037 ... 

. 26.949 . 

.. — 

Mercury (at 60°). 

13568 ... 

848.00 ... 

. 7.851 ... 

.4908 ... 

2.037 . 

.. — 














































THE WEIGHT OF ONE LINEAL FOOT OF WROUGHT 
IRON—FLAT. 


SIZE. 

Ins. In. 

WEIGHT. 

tbs. 

1 b y K • 

... 0.85 

1 34 by 34 • 

... 1.06 

1 34 by % . 

... 1.27 

by 34 • 

... 1.48 

2 by 34 . 

... 1.69 

234 by 5 • 

. .. 1.90 

2 34 by 34 . 

... 2.11 

2% by g . 

.... 2.32 

3 by 5 . 

... 2.53 

334 by >4 ■ 

.... 2.75 

334 by 34 

.... 2.96 

3M by 34 

.. .. 3.17 

4 by 34 . 

.. .. 3.38 

434 by 34 ■ 

. ... 3.59 

434 by 34 

.. .. 3.80 

4 M by 34 

.... 4.01 

5 by 34 , 

.... 4.22 

534 by 34 

.... 4.44 

5 34 by 34 

.... 4.65 

5M by 34 

.... 4.86 

G by 34 

.... 5.07 

1 by 34 

.. .. 1.69 

134 by 34 

_2.11 

134 by 34 

2.53 


SIZE. WEIGHT. 


Ins. In. 

lbs. 

1% by 34 

.. 2.96 

2 by 34.. 

.. 3.38 

234 by 34 • • 

.. 3.80 

234 by 34 • • 

.. 4.22 

2 3 4 by 34 . • 

.. 4.65 

3 by 34 .. 

..5 07 

334 by 34 • • 

.. 5.49 

334 by 34 • • 

.. 5.92 

3% by 34 • • 

.. 6.33 

4 by 34 • • 

.. 6.76 

4 34 by 34 • • 

.. 7.18 

4 34 by 34 • • 

.. 7.60 

4 M by 34 • • 

.. 8.03 

5 by 34 . . 

.. 845 

534 by 34 • ■ 

,.. 8.87 

534 by 34 • • 

.. 9.30 

by 34 • 

. . . 9.72 

6 by 34 . 

. . 10.14 

1 by % • 

... 2.53 

134 by 34 • 

... 3.17 

4 34 by % . 

.. . 3.80 

1M by % . 

... 4.44 

2 by % . 

... 5.07 


SIZE. WEIGHT. 


Ins. In. 

lbs. 

234 by M • • 

. 5.70 

234 by % .. 

. 6.33 

2M by M • • 

. 6.97 

3 by 24 . . 

. 7.60 

334 by M • • 

. 8.24 

334 by M . • 

.. 8.87 

3M by M •' 

. . 9.51 

4 by % .. 

. . 10.14 

4 34 by % . 

.. 10.77 

434 by % . 

.. 11.41 

4 M by % . 

. . 12.04 

5 by % . 

. . 12.67 

534 by % . 

. . 13.31 

534 by % • 

.. 13.94 

5M by M • 

. . 14.57 

6 by <34 • 

.. 15.21 

134 by 1 . 

.. 5.07 

2 by 1 . 

.. 6.76 

3 by 1 . 

.. 10.14 

4 by 1 . 

.. 13.52 

5 by 1 . 

.. 16.90 

6 by 1 . 

.. 20.28 

7 by 1 . 

. . 23.66 










ir>3 


WEIGHT OF ROUND IRON PER LINEAL FOOT. 


U in. 
.165 

% in. 
.373 

36 in- 

.663 

% in- 

1.043 

Min. 

1.493 

Y% in 
2.082 

1 in. 
2.654 

1% in. 
3.360 

134 in- 

4.172 

1% in. 
5.019 

1 36 in. 

5.972 

1% in. 
7.010 

1M in- 
8.128 

\Ji in. 

9.333 

2 in. 
10.616 

2% in. 
11.988 

234 in. 
13.440 

2% in. 
14.975 

2 36 in- 
16.688 

2% in. 
18.293 

2% in. 
20.076 

2%, in. 
21.944 

3 in. 
23.888 

336 in. 
25.926 

33^ in. 
28.040 

3% in. 
30.240 

3% in. 
32.512 

3% in. 
34.886 

3% in. 
37.332 

3/6 in. 
39.864 

4 in. 
42.464 

434: in. 
47.952 

436 in- 

53.760 

in. 

56.788 

! 4% in. 
59.900 

in. 

63.094 

5 in. 
66.752 

53^ in. 
73.172 

5 36 in. 

80.304 

6 in. 
95 552 


WEIGHT OF SQUARE IRON PER LINEAL FOOT. 


>4 in- 
.211 

I % in. 36 in 
.475 .845 

% in 

1.320 

% in. 
1.901 

% in. 

2.588 

1 in. 
3.380 

T36 in. 
4.278 

in- 

5.280 

1 % in. 136 in. 
6.390 7.604 

1% in. 
8.926 

1M in- 

10.352 

1% in. 
11.883 

2 in. 
13.520 

236 in. 

15.263 

234 in. 
17.112 

2% in. 234 in. 

1 19.066 21.120 

2% in. 
23.292 

2% in. 
25.560 

2/6 in. 
27.939 

3 in. 
30.416 

336 in- 

33.010 

3% in. 
35.704 

3% in. 334 in. 
38.503 41.408 

in.! 
44.418 

3% in. 
47.534 

3%, in. 
50.756 

4 in. 
54.084 

436 in- 

57.517 

434" in. 
61.055 1 

4% in. 434 in. 
64.700 68.448 

in. 

72.305' 

in. 

76.264 

4 % in. 
80.333 

5 in. 
84.480 

5)6 in. 
88.784 




























154 


NUMBER OF NAILS PER POUND. 


Size of 

Nail. 

No. per 
pound. 

Length. 

Size of 

Nail. 

No. per 
pound. 

Length. 

3d fine, 

800 

iy inches. 

6d slating, 

124 

2 

inches. 

3d 

4< 0 

ly “ 

6d flooring, 
8d 

184 

2 

(« 

4d light, 

400 

1% “ 

100 


if 

4d 

288 

1 7-16 “ 

lOd 

80 

14 

5d 

200 

1 % “ 

12d 

65 

3V a 

4 4 

6d 

152 

2 “ 

3d box, 

560 


44 

7d 

120 

2% “ 

4d *• 

410 


44 

8d 

92 

i u 

5d “ 

272 


44 

9d 

80 

2 k “ 

3 

6d “ 

250 

2 

44 

lOd 

68 

7d “ 

176 

2*/ 2 

44 

12d 

48 

3'4 “ 

8d “ 

140 

I 4 

20d 

31 

4 

9d “ 

120 

12% 

• 4 

30d 

24 

4 'A “ 

lOd “ 

100 

13 

4* 

40d 

8 

5 “ 

4d fine fin’g 

544 


u 

f»0d 

14 

|5V* “ 

5d “ 

480 

i % 

44 

60d 

10 

6 

6d “ 

272 

2 

44 

3d slating, 

300 

m “ 

8d 

165 

2^ 

44 

4d “ 1 

5d “ | 

! 200 

I 150 

1U “ 

li % “ 

lOd 

110 

3 

4 4 


IRON REQUIRED FOR ONE MILE OF TRACK. 


TONS OF IKON. 

Rule. —To find the number of tons of rail to the mile, 
divide the weight per yard by 7, and multiply by 11, thus: 
for 56 pound rail, divide 56 by 7, equal 8, multiplied by 
11 equal 88 tons, for one mile of single track. 


\Ve : ght 
of Rail 
per Yard. 

Tons per mile. 


1 Weight 
of Rail 
per Yard. 

Tons per mile. 

12 

lbs. 

18 tons 1920 

lbs. 


45 lbs. 

70 tons 1600 lbs. 

14 

“ 

22 

Li 


a 


48 

a 

75 

ii 

960 

U 

16 

ii 

25 

a 

320 

a 


50 

u 

78 

ii 

1280 

ii 

18 

44 

28 

a 

640 

a 


52 

u 

81 

U 

1600 

ii 

20 

a 

31 

a 

960 

a 


56 

a 

88 

ii 


ii 

22 

a 

34 

a . 

1280 

a 


57 

a 

89 

ii 

1280 

ii 

25 

ik 

39 

a 

640 

a 


60 

a 

94 

ii 

640 

ii 

26 

44 

40 

a 

1920 

a 


62 

a 

97 

ii 

960 

ii 

27 

u 

42 

a 

960 

a 


64 

a 

100 

( i 

1280 

ii 

28 

u 

44 

a 


a 


65 

u 

102 

ii 

320 

ii 

30 


47 

a 

320 

a 


68 

a 

106 

ii 

1920 

ii 

33 


51 

a 

1920 

a 


70 

44 

110 

ii 


ii 

35 

u 

55 

a 


a 


72 

a 

113 

ii 

320 

ii 

40 

6; 

62 

a 

1920 

a 


76 

(ii 

119 

ii 

960 

ii 




































155 


SPLICES AND BOLTS FOR ONE MILE OF TRACK. 


30 feet of Rail requires 740 Splices ; 1408 Bolts and Nuts. 


28 

44 

tt 

754 

tt 

1508 

tt 

tt 

27 

tt 

c; 

782 

It 

1564 

tt 

tt 

25 

t; 

tt • 

844 

tt 

1688 

tt 

tt 

24 

tt 

44 

880 

tt 

1760 

tt 

tt 


WEIGHT OF ONE HUNDRED BOLTS OF THE ENUMER - 
ATED SIZES. 


WITH SQUABE HEADS AND NUTS. 


Leng'hs. 

% in.! 

5-16 in. 

Min. 

7-16 in. 

K in. 

% in. 

% in. 

Vs in. 

m 

in. 

[ 4.16 

7.59 

10.62 

15.94 

23.87 

39.31 



4.22 

7.87 

11.72 

16.90 

25.06 

41.48 



2 

tt 

4.75. 

8.56 

12.38 

18.25 

26.44 

45 69 

73.62 


2*4 

2/, 

2M 

it 

5.34 

9.12 

12.90 

19.38 

28.62 

49.50 

76. 


1 1 

5.97 

I 6.50 

9.59 

10.44 

14.69 

16.47 

20 69 
21.50 

29.50 

31.16 

51.25 

53. 

79.75 

83. 

. 

3 

tt 

11.78 

17.88 

22.38 

32.44 

56. 

85.38 

127.25 

140.56 

3 % 

4 

it 


11.81 

18.94 

26.19 

39.75 

63.12 

93.44 

it 

. 

20.59 

28 87 

42.50 

74.87 

108.12 

148.37 

r* 

tt 



21 69 

29.87 

44.87 

79.62 

113.12 

158.76 

ti 



23.62 

32.31 

48.81 

83. 

122. 

167.25 

H'A 

6 




25.81 

34.44 

51.38 

87 88 

128.62 

174.88 

it 



26.87 

36.62 

53.31 

92.38 

131.75 

204.25 

6 'A 

7 

it 



56.87 

96 88 

139.56 

214.69 

n 


i 1 

59.12 

99.87 

145.50 

228.44 

7 4 

g 



1 

61.87 

105.75 

150.88 

235.31 


!. 

! 

64.44 

109.50 

157.12 

239.88 

9 

<4 

! ' 

I 


70.50 

118.12 

169.62 

258 12 

10 

it 




77. 

128.13 

184. 

276.18 

11 

ti 

I . 

1 


82.88 

136.19 

195.13 

295.69 

12 

U 

1 

1 . 


86.37 

144.87 

209.75 

311.94 

13 

tt 

. 

1 


92. 

155.50 

219.37 

335.81 

14 

it 

1 ‘ 

1 


97.75 

163.58 

237 50 

351.88 

15 


. 



103.25 

170.75 : 

249 06 

391.75 



















































15P> 

WEIGHT OF SHEET AND PLATE IRON. 

THICKNESS BY BIRMINGHAM WIRE GAUGE AND INCHES. WEIGHT 
OF A SQUARE FOOT IN POUNDS. 


THICKNESS. 

Weight, 


THICKNESS. 

Weight, 

B. W. 

Part of au 

Pounds. 


B. W. 

Part of an 

Pounds. 

Gauge. 

inch. 



Gauge. 

inch. 



1-16 or -0625 

2518 


3 

•259 

10-37 

14 

•083 

3-35 



9-32 or "2812 

1138 


3-32 or '0937 

3 78 


1 

• o 

O 

12-15 

12 

TOO 

44 



5-16 or -3125 

12-58 •: 


Ys or T25 

5 054 


0 

•340 

13-750 

9 

T48 

5-98 



11-32 or -3437 

13-875 


5-32 or 1562 

6-305 


00 

•380 

15-26 

7 

T80 

7-27 



13-32 or -4062 

16 34 


3-16 or T875 

7-578 


000 

•425 

17T25 

6 

•203 

8-005 



8-16 or -4375 

17 65 


7-32 or “2187 

879 


0000 

•454 

18 30 

5 

•22 

8-912 



15-32 or -4607 

18-90 


Y or '25 

10-09 


00000 

Vi or ‘50 

20 00 


For S S EEL PLATES multiply tabular number above (for size) by 101 


WEIGHT OF SHEET AND PLATE IRON. 


THICKNESS IN INCHES. WEIGHT OF A SQUARE FOOT IN POUNDS. 


Inches 

Thick. 

lbs. per 

Sq. Foot. 


Inches 

Thick. 

ft>s. per 

Sq. Foot. 


Inches 

Thick. 

lbs. per 

Sq. Foot. 

9-16 

22-5 


1 % 

7062 


3 Vs 

156-51 

% 

25-21 


13-16 

73-14 


4 

161 55 

11-16 

21-lb 


Vs 

75 '58 


Ye 

1666 

'% 

30-25 


15-16 

78-20 



171-76 

13-16 

32-75 


2 

80"75 


% 

176-71 

Vs 

35 26 


Ys 

85-75 


Y 

18P77 

15-16 

37-75 


V, 

90 81 


Vs 

18679 

1 

40-35 


% 

95 86 


4* 

191-84 

1-16 

42 87 



100-9 


Vs 

196-9 

Vs 

45-4 


% 

105 95 


5 

201-85 

3-16 

47 9 


% 

111- 


Ys 

206 9 

Ya 

5045 


Vs 

116-1 


Ya 

211-95 

5-16 

52 96 


3 

121-15 


Ys 

217- 

% 

55-45 


Ys 

126-21 


u 

222 05 

7-16 

58-01 


V/i 

131-26 


9s 

227-01 

V> 

60-52 


% 

136-32 


•>a 

232-15 

9-16 

63-05 


% 

141-37 


Vs 

237-2 

% 

65-56 


% 

146-41 


6 

242-25 

11-16 

68-11 


% 

151-46 





For STEEL PLATES multiply tabular number above (for size) by P01. 






































157 


Cast iron 

Brass. 

Lead. 

Tin. 

Zinc. 


SHRINKAGE OF CASTINGS. 


f in. per lineal ft. 

A “ 

i « tt 


SIZES AND WEIGHTS OF WROUGHT IRON WELDED 
TUBES FOR GAS, STEAM AND WATER. 


Inside 

Weight 

Inside 

Weight 

Diameter. 

per Foot. 

Diameter. 

per Fo( t. 

i 

inch. 

.24 

2f 

inches. 

5.77 

1 

tt 

.42 

3 

tt 

7 54 

1 

tt 

.56 

3f 

tt 

9.05 

1 

2 

t; 

.85 

4 

tt 

10.72 

1 

tt 

1.12 

4f 

tt 

12.49 

1 

tt 

1.67 

5 

tt 

14.56 

1* 

tt 

2.25 

6 

tt 

18.77 

If 

tt 

2.69 

7 

tt 

23.41 

2 

tt 

3.66 

8 

tt 

28.35 


FORCE OF GRAVITY. 

A body falling gains, in the first second of time, a ve¬ 
locity of 32 feet per second and falls a distance of 16 feet, 
16 being the mean between 0, the velocity at the beginning, 
and 32 the velocity gained at the end of the first second 

The second second the body commences with a velocity 
of 32 feet, and under the constant force of gravity gains 32 
feet more velocity, making 64 feet =4 X 16. It commences 
the third second with a velocity of 64 feet and gains 32 
feet more, making 96 feet = 6 X 16 feet. The mean be¬ 
tween 32 feet, the velocity at the beginning of the second 
second, and 64 feet, the velocity at the close, is 48 feet = 
3 X 16 feet. The mean between 64 feet, the velocity at 
the beginning of the third second, and 96 feet, the ve¬ 
locity at the close, is 80 feet — 5 X 16. Hence, the ve¬ 
locities are as the even numbers, and the distances as the 
odd numbers. 










158 


In any number of seconds, a body falls 16 feet X num¬ 
ber of seconds, or, 

Let v be velocity of falling body. 

“ d “ distance fallen through perpendicular in feet. 

“ t “ time in seconds. Then 
v — 32 t, 
d = 16t 2 
v 2 = 64 d , 

or, putting these formula into words. 

1. To find the depth of a shaft by letting a body fall 
down, w T hen the time is known. Square the number of 
seconds it takes to fall; multiply them by 16 and the re¬ 
sult is the depth in feet. 

2. To learn how long it will take a body to fall down a 
shaft, when the depth is known, multiply the depth by 64, 
and take out the square root. The root is the velocity in 
seconds when it reaches the bottom, one-half of which is 
the mean velocity in feet per seconds, which, divided into 
the distance in feet, gives the time taken in falling. 

Example: 

The East Mine shaft is 1600 feet deep. How long will 
it take a stone to fall down it, and what speed will it have 
attained when it strikes the bottom ? 

Solution: 

Depth of shaft, 1600 feet. 

1600 X 64 ^ 102,400 

_— 320 620 

y / 102,400 * = 160 mean velocity in feet per 

1600 

second, and — 10 seconds to fall to bottom, and the 

speed per second when it strikes bottom will be 320 feet. 




CHEMICAL MEMORANDA. 


A simple or elementary substance is a body that cannot 
be resolved or separated into any simpler substances—as 
oxygen, carbon, iron. 

A compound substance is one consisting of two or more 
constituents—as water, carbonic acid gas, olefiant gas. 

The equivalent number or atomic weight expresses the 
relations that subsist between the different proportions by 
weight in which substances unite chemically with each 
other. 

The eqivalent of a compound is the sum of the equiva¬ 
lents of its constituents. 

Specific gravity expresses the difference that subsists be¬ 
tween the weights of equal volumes of bodies. 

So far as chemists have been able to discover, there are 
about 65 elementary or simple substances. 

No compound body contains all the elementary sub¬ 
stances. Most compounds are composed of two, three or 
four elements. 


TABLE OF ELEMENTARY SUBSTANCES. 


Names of 

Elements. 

Aluminum .. 

Symbol. 

, . A1 .... 

Atomic 

Weight. 

. 27.4 

Antimony. 

. Sb .... 

122 

Arsenic. 


. 75 

Porinm .. 

. Ba .... 

. 137 

Ttorvllimn . 

. Be .... 

. 9.4 

Bismuth. 

. Bi .... 

. 210 

Boron .. 

. B .... 

. 11 

PrnmiriA ...... 

. Br ... 

80 

flnrlminm . 

. Cd .... 

. 112 

flalftiniTi . 

. Ca .... 

. 40 

flai-hnn . . 

. C .... 

. 12 

Cerium. 

. Ce .... 

. 92 

nhlnrine .. 

. Cl .... 

. 35.5 

Chromium. 

. Cr .... 

. 52.2 

rinbalt 

. Co .... 

. 58.8 

Copper... 

. Cu .... 

. 63.4 

Elnnrino . 

.. F .... 

. 19 

Gold. 


. 197 








































lf)0 


Names of 
Elements. 

Hydrogen. 

Indium. 

Iodine. 

Iridium. 

Iron. 

Lanthanum. 

Lead. 

Lithium.. 

Magnesium. 

Manganese. 

Mercury .. 

Molybdenum . 

Nickel. . 

Niobium. 

Nitrogen.-... 

Osmium. 

Oxygen . .... 

Pallidium . 

Phosphorus . . 

Platinum . 

Potassium . 

Rhodium. 

Rubidium. 

Ruthenium.. 

Selenium . 

Silicium or Silicon 

Silver. 

Sodium. 

Strontium. 

Sulphur . 

Tantalum . 

Tellurium. 

Thallium. 

Thorium. . 

Tin. 

Titanium. 

Tungsten. 

Uranium. 

Vanadium. 

Yttrium.. 

Zinc. 

Zirconium. 


Atomic 


Symbol. 

Weight. 

H 

. 1 

. In 

. 74 

.. I 

. 127 

Ir 

. 198 

. Fe 

. 56 

. Ln 

. 93 

. Pb 

. 207 

. Li 

. 7 

. Mg 

. 24 

. Mn 

. 55 

• Hg 

. 200 

Mo 

. 96 

. Ni 

.. 58.8 

Nb 

. 95 

. N 

. 14 

Os 

. 199 

0 

. 16 

. Pd 

. 106.6 

. P 

. 31 

.. Ft 

. 197.4 

.. K 

. 39.1 

.. R 

. 104 

.. Rb 

. 85 

Ru 

. 104 

Se 

. 79 

.. Si 

.. 28 


. 108 

Na 

...... .. 23 

Sr 

. 87.6 

.. S 

. 32 

.. Ta 

. 182 

.. Te 

. 128 

T1 

. 204 


. 231.5 

.. Sn 

. 118 

Ti 

. 50 

W 

. 184 

.. U 

. 120 

... V 

. 51 2 

... Y 

. 61.7 

. . Zn 

. 65 

... Zr 

. 89.6 






















































































161 


LIST OF SOME BINARY COMPOUNDS. 


Name of Compound. Symbol. 

Ammonia. N H 3 

Bisulphide of Carbon.. C S 2 

Carbonic acid gas. C 0 2 

Carbonic oxide . C O 

Cyanogen. N C 2 

Hydrochloric acid. H Cl 

Light carbureted hydrogen. C II 4 

Nitric acid. N 0 5 

Olefiant gas.«. C 2 H 4 

Peroxide of iron. Fe 2 0 3 

Protoxide of iron. Fe O 

Sulphurous acid gas. S 0 2 

Sulphuric acid. H 2 S0 4 

Sulphureted hydrogen. H 2 S 

Water . H 2 O 


NOMENCLATURE. 


The compounds of the non-metallic elements with the 
metals and with each other have names ending in “ide” or 
“uret;” as Fe S, sulphide or sulphuret of iron. 

When two or more equivalents of the non-metallic ele¬ 
ments enter into combination, the number of equivalents 
is expressed by prefixes. 

Bi means 2 eq., as N 0 2 binoxide of nitrogen 

Ter “ 3 eq., as Sb 2 S 3 tersulphide of antimony. 

Penta “ 5 eq., 

Sesqui “ 1% eq-, (= 2 to 3), as Fe 2 0 3 sesquioxide of 

iron. 

Proto “ first, or 1 to 1, as Fe O protoxide of iron. 

Sub “ under, as Cu 2 O suboxide of copper. 

Per “ the highest, as C10 4 protoxide of chlorine. 

Alkalies neutralize acids, forming salts. 

The terminations “ic” and “ous” are used for acids, the 
former representing a higher state of oxidation than the 


latter • 

When a substance forms more than two acid compounds, 
the prefixes “hypo,” under, and “hyper,” above , are used. 

A base is a compound which will chemically combine 
with an acid. 

A salt is a compound of an acid and a base. 

When water is in combination with acids or bases, they 
are said to be hydrated. 




















162 


COMMON NAMES OF CERTAIN CHEMICAL SUB¬ 
STANCES. 

Aqua fortis.Nitric acid. 

Bluestone, or blue vitriol...Sulphate of copper. 

Calomel.Chloride of mercury. 

Chloroform.Chloride of formyle. 

Common salt.Chloride of sodium. 

Copperas, or green vitriol..Sulphate of iron. 

Corrosive sublimate.Bichloride of mercury. 

Dry Alum.Sulphate of alumina and potash. 

Epsom salts.Sulphate of magnesia. 

Ethiops mineral.Black sulphide of mercury. 

Galena.Sulphide of lead. 

Glauber’s salts.Sulphate of soda. 

Iron pyrites'...Bisulphide of iron. 

Jeweler’s putty.Oxide of tin. 

King’s yellow.Sulphide of arsenic. 

Laughing gas.Protoxide of nitrogen. 

Lime.Oxide of calcium. 

Lunar caustic.Nitrate of silver. 

Mosaic gold.Bisulphide of tin. 

Nitre, or salt petre.Nitrate of potash. 

Oil of vitriol.Sulphuric acid. 

Realga.Sulphide of arsenic. 

Red lead.Oxide of lead. 

Rust of iron.Oxide of iron. 

Soda.Oxide of sodium. 

Spirit of Hartshorn...Ammonia. 

Spirit of salt.Hydrochloric acid. 

Stucco, or plaster of Paris...Sulphate of lime. 

Sugar of lead.Acetate of lead. 

Vermillion.Sulphide of mercury. 

Vinegar.Acetic acid. 

Volatile alkal.Ammonia. 

Water.Oxide of hydrogen. 

White Vitriol.Sulphate of zinc. 

































163 


TABLE 


SHOWING THE NUMBER OF VOLUMES OF VARIOUS GASES WHICH 
100 VOLUMES OF WATER, AT 60° FAHR. AND 30 INCHES BA¬ 
ROMETRIC PRESSURE, CAN ABSORB. 


{Dr. Frankland.) 


Ammonia... 

Sulphurous acid. 

Sulphureted hydrogen. 

Carbonic acid. 

Olefiant gas. 

Illuminating hydrocarbons 

Oxygen . 

Carbonic oxide. 

Nitrogen. 

Hydrogen . 

Light carbureted hydrogen. 


. 7800 volumes. 

. 3300 “ 

. 253 “ 

. 100 “ 

. 12.5 “ 

Not determined, but proba¬ 
bly more soluble than ole¬ 
fiant gas. 

. 3.7 volumes. 

. 1.56 “ 

. 1.56 “ 

. 1.56 “ 

. 1.60 “ 


When water has been saturated with one gas and is ex¬ 
posed to the influence of a second, it usually allows a por¬ 
tion of the first to escape, whilst it absorbs an equivalent 
quantity of the second. In this way a small portion of a 
not easily soluble gas can expel a large volume, of an easily 
soluble one. 













164 


USEFUL MEMORANDA. 


Mean circumference of the earth. 24,856 miles. 

Diameter of the earth. 7,921 “ 

Radius of the equator. 20,921,180 feet. 

Polar semi-axis. 20,853,180 “ 

Length of geographical or nautical mile.. 6075.66 “ 

Ratio of nautical to English mile. 1.15068 to 1. 

Length of pendulum at the equator. 39.01326 inches. 

Length of pendulum at New York. 39.10153 “ 

Force of gravity at New York, feet per 

second.. 32.1594 

Tropical year. 365..242245 days. 

Length of an arc.= No. of Deg. X rad. X .01745. 


Circumference of a circle, 
Area of do. 


Diam. X 6.1416. 
Diam. 2 X .7854. 


Diameter of do . Cir. X .31831. 


Side of an equal square... 
Diameter of equal circle.. 


Diam. X .8862. 
y Area X 1.12837. 


Ellipse, area. T. axis X C. axis X .7854. 

Sphere, surface. Diam. 2 X 3.1416, 

“ solidity. Diam. 3 X .5236. 

Square feet. Circular inches X .00456. 

“ “ . Square inches X .00695. 

“ yards. Square feet X .111. 

Cubic feet...... Cubic inches X .00058. 

“ yards. Cubic feet X .03704. 

“ “ . Cylindrical feet X .02909. 

English miles. Lineal feet X .00019, or lineal 

yards X .000568. 

“ acres. Square yards X .00026067. 

Parabola, area. § of base X height. 

1 square foot. 183.346 circular inches. 

Cub. ins. in imperial gal.... 277.274 

“ “ in stand’d U. S. gal 231 

“ “ in beer gallon. 282 

“ foot. 6.232 imperial gallons. 

“ inches X .028848. pints. 

“ X .014424. quarts. 

“ “ X 003606. gallons. 

“ “ X .0004508. bushels. 

“ “ X .00005635... quarters. 

“ “ X 0005787. cubic feet. 

“ “ X .0000214. “ yards. 


































165 


Cab. inches X .0163. 

“ 44 x .257. 

“ 44 X -278. 

44 “ X .491. 

“ 44 X .4112. 

“ 44 X .2632 . 

“ 44 X .2597 . 

44 “ X .3201 . 

“ “ ’ X -3058 . 

Statute acres X 4840. 

Square links X .4356. 

“ feet X 2.3. 

Links X *22. 

“ X 66. 

Feet X 1.5. 

Cubic feet X 2.200. 

Cylind. ins X .0004546. . .. 
Imperial gallons X .1604. . 
Standard gallons X *1331. . 

Cubic feet X *779. 

Bushels X -0476 . 

“ XI 284. 

“ X 2218.2. 

Statute miles X *369. 

Pounds avoir. X 7000. 

Grains X .0001429. 

Pounds avoir. X *009. 

44 44 X 00045.... 

Tons X 2,240. 

44 X .984. 

Pounds on the sq. in. X 144 
Pounds on the sq. ft. X *007 
Miles per hour X 1 467. . . . 
Feet per second X .682.. . . 
French metres X 3.281. . . . 

44 litres X .2201. 

44 hectolitre X 2.7512 
4 * grammes X .002205 
44 kilogrammes X 2.205 

Dia. of sphere X *806. 

‘ 4 44 X -6667_ 

One atmosphere. 


= French litres, 
lb cast iron. 

44 wrought iron. 

44 quicksilver. 

44 lead. 

44 tin. 

44 zinc. 

44 copper 
44 brass, 
square yards. 

44 feet. 

44 links, 
yards, 
feet, 
links. 

cylindrical inches, 
cubic yards. 

44 feet. 

44 feet, 
bushels, 
cubic yards. 

44 feet. 

44 inches. 

mean geographical miles, 
grains. 

pounds avoirdupois. 

cwts. 

tons. 

pounds avoirdupois, 
tonnes, French, 
pounds on the square foot, 
pounds on the square inch, 
feet per second, 
miles per hour. 

English feet, 
imperial gallons. 

English bushels, 
pounds avoirdupois. 

U U 

dimensions of equal cube, 
length of equal cylinder. 
14.7 pounds on the sq. inch. 
2116 44 44 foot. 

29.922 inches of mercury. 
33.9 feet of water. 
































166 


MEASURES OF LENGTH. 

The U. S. standard yard is the same as the imperial yard 
of Great Britain. It is determined as follows : The rod 
of a pendulum vibrating seconds of mean time in the 
latitude of London in a vacuum at the level of the sea is 
divided into 391,393 equal parts, and 360,000 of these parts 
are 36 inches or 1 standard yard. 

An inch is one 500,500,000th part of the earth’s polar axis. 

Artificers sometimes divide the inch into lines or twelfths, 
but more commonly into binary divisions—half, quarter, 
eighth, sixteenths, and thirty-second. 

Mechanical engineers divide the inch decimally—lOths. 
lOOths, 1000th, &c. 

Civil engineers divide the foot decimally. 

The hand is used for heights of horses and the girths of 
spars. 

The fathom = 2 yards. 

The league = 3 nautical miles. 

The pace == 3 ft. 

The geographical or nautical mile =■ 1 15th statute mile. 

The geographical degree — 60 geographical or nautical 
miles. 

The length of a degree of latitude varies, being 68.72 
miles at the equator, 69.05 miles in middle latitudes, and 
69.34 miles in the polar regions. A degree of longitude is 
greatest at the equator, where it is 69.16 miles, and it 
gradually decreases toward the poles, where it is 0. 


Inches. 

TABLE 

Bands. 

OF MEASURES OF LENGTH 

Feet. Yards. Fathoms. Chains. 

Fur. 

Mile. 

1 

— ' 

— 

— 

— 

— 

—* 

— 

4 

1 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

12 

3 

1 

— 

— 

_ • 

_ 

_ 

36 

9 

3 

1 

— 

— 

— 

— ' 

72 

18 

6 

2 

1 

— 

— 

— 

792 

198 

66 

22 

11 

1 

— ‘ : 

— 

7,920 

1,980 

660 

220 

110 

10 

1 

— 

63,360 

15,840 

5,280 

9,760 

880 

80 

8 

1 



167 


MEASURES OF AREA. 


( Used in Engineering and Science .) 


Sq. inch. Sq. foot. 

1 . — . 

Sq. yard. 

Sq. mile. 

144 . 1 . 



1,296 . 9 . 

1 


— 27,878,400 

3.097,600 ... 

. 1 

Land Measure: 




Sq. yards. 

Sq. feet. 

Rood (40 perches). 

1,210 

. 10,890 

Perch. 

30£ .... 

2724 

Acre (4 roods, or 10 sq. chains) 

4,840 . 

. 43,560 

Used in the Arts: 



Square (of roofing or flooring) 

— . 

100 


MEASURES OF WEIGHT. 

The U. S. standard unit of weight is the Troy pound of 
the Mint which is the same as the imperial standard pound 
of Great Britain, and is determined as follows: A cubic 
inch of distilled water in a vacuum, weighed by brass 
weights also in a vacuum, at a temperature of 62° Fahren¬ 
heit’s thermometer, is equal to 252.458 grains, of which 
the standard Troy pound contains 5760. 

The U. S. Avoirdupois is determined from the standard 
Troy pound, and contains 700 Troy grains. 


Avoirdupois Weight, Unit Equivalents. 


Dr. 

Oz. 

Lbs. 

Cwt. 

T. 

16 — 

1 


.... 

•••• 

256 — 

16 

1 

.... 

.... 

25 600 == 

1,600 

= 100 

= 1 

.... 

512,000 = 

32,000 

=- 2000 

= 20 = 

1 


Troy Weight, Unit Equivalents. 
Gr. Pwt. Oz. Lb. 

24 — 1 

480 = 20 = 1 

5760 = 240 = 12 = 1 





















168 


Long Ton Table. 


Lbs. 

Qr. 

Cwt. 

T. 

28 — 

1 

... 

. . . 

112 

4 = 

1 

... 

2210 = 

80 = 

20 

= 1 


The gross ton is used in the United States in the Anthra¬ 
cite coal and the wholesale iron and plaster trades. 


SOLID MEASURES. 

Cubic ins. Cubic i 


Cubic inch (subdivided decimally). 1 

1 foot X 1 X 1 inch. 12 

1 foot X 1 foot X 1 inch. . 144 

Cubic foot (subdivided decimally or du- 

odecimally). 1,728 1 

Cubic yard. 46,656 27 

Load of hewn timber. ... 50 

Perch of masonry(=16% sq. yds. face 

X 1% ff* thick). 24% cubic ft. 

Cord of Wood . 128 cubic ft. 

A cubic yard of earth is called a load. 


In civil engineering the cubic yard is the unit to which 
estimates are reduced. 

A pile 8 feet long, 4 feet wide and 4 feet high, contains 
1 cord, and a cord foot is one foot in length of such a pile. 

In measuring timber for shipment one-fifth of the solid 
contents of round timber is deducted for waste in hewing 
or sawing 


MEASURES OF CAPACITY. 

The U. S. standard unit of liquid measure is the old 
English wine gallon, of 231 cubic inches, which is equal 
to 8.33888 pounds avordupois of distilled water at its 
maximum density; that is, at the temperature of 39.83° 
Fahrenheit, the barometer at 30 inches. 

The U. S. Standard unit of dry measure is the British 
Winchester bushel, which is 18% inches in diameter and 8 
inches deep, and contains 2150.42 cubic inches, equal to 
77.6274 pounds avoirdupois of distilled water, at its maxi 
mum density. A gallon dry measure contains 268.8 cubic 
inches. 











169 


The British imperial standard gallon is a measure that 
will contain 10 pounds avoirdupois weight distilled water, 
weighed in air at 62° Fahrenheit, the barometer at 30 
inches It contains 277.274 cubic inches. 


Gi. 

Pt. 

Qt. 

Gal. Bbl. 

Hhd. 

4 — 

1 

. . • 

... ... 

• . • 

8 = 

2 

1 

... .... 

.... 

32 = 

8 = 

4 

= 1 

... 

1008 - 

252 = 

126 

= 31| = 1 

... 

2016 = 

504 = 

252 

= 63 = 2 — 

1 

e following denominations are also in use: 



42 Gallons make l'tierce. 

2 Hhds. make 1 pipe or butt. 

2 Pipes or 4 hhds. make 1 tun. 

The denominations barrel and hogshead are used in es¬ 
timating the capacity of cisterns,'reservoirs, vats, &c. J In 
Massachusetts, the barrel is 32 gallons. 

The tierce, hogshead, pipe, butt and tun are the names 
of casks, and do not express any fixed measures. They 
are usuallyjfgauged, and have their capacity in gallons 
marked on them. 


DRY MEASURE. 


Pt. 

Qt. 

Pk. 

Bu. 

2 

= 1 

. . 

; . 

16 

= 8 = 

1 

. . 

64 

= 32 = 

4 

= 1 


MEASURES OF VALUE. 

United States Money. 

The currency of the United States is decimal currency, 
and is sometimes called Federal money. 

The unit is the dollar, and all the other denominations 
are either divisors or multiples of this unit. 

Unit Equivalents. 


Ml. 

ct. 

D. 

10 = 

1 


100 

10 

= 1 

1,000 = 

100 

= 10 

10,000 = 

1,000 

= 100 


The character $ is supposed to be a contraction of U. S. 
(United States), the U being placed upon the S. 





170 


The fineness of gold and silver coins means the propor¬ 
tion of the precious metals which they contain, and is 
generally expressed in thousandths of their total weight. 
The fineness of gold coins is also expressed in carats, or 
twenty-fourths of their total weight. 

By act of Congress, January 18, 1837, all gold and silver 
coins must consist of 9 parts (.900) pure metal, and 1 part 
(.100) alloy. The alloy for gold must consist of equal 
parts of silver and copper, and the alloy for silver of pure 
copper. 

The three-cent piece is 3 parts (f) silver, and 1 part (|) 
copper. 

The nickel cent is 88 parts copper and 12 parts nickel. 

The fineness of British gold coins is 22 carats, or 0.916f; 
of British silver coins, 0.925, and of the coins of most 
other nations, 0.900. 

The franc is the value of 4.5 grammes of pure silver, 
which, being alloyed with 0.5 grammes of copper, the full 
weight of the coin is 5 grammes. The fineness is 0.900. 
The Italian Lira is equal to the franc in weight, fineness, 
and value. 


COMPARATIVE TABLE OF MONEYS. 


English. 

lqr.— 

Id .= 

Is .= 

4s. Id. 2A 2 r qr... = 
£1 ..= 


u. s. 

$ •OO^fty 
• 02 * 
.242 
1.00 
4.84 


French. 

1 millime 
1 centime 
1 franc ..., 


U. S. 
.000186 
.00187 
.186 


MEASURES OF VELOCITY. 

Speed of turning, or angular velocity, is expressed in turns 
per second, per minute, or per hour, or in circular measure 
per second. 

To convert turns into circular measure, multiply by 
6.2832. J 

To convert circular measure into turns, multiply bv 
0,159155, n J 


T 












Ill 


Comparison of Different Measures of Angular Velocity* 


Circular measure 
per second. 

1 

6.2832 

0.10472 

0.001745 


Turns 
per second. 

0.159155 

1 

0.016666 

0.000277 


Turns 
per minute. 

9.5493 

60 

1 

0.07666 


Turns 
per hour. 

572.958 

3600 

60 

1 


MEASURES OF HEAVINESS 

are expressed in units of weight per unit of volume ; as 
pounds to the cubic foot. 

Specific gravity is the ratio of the heaviness of a given 
substance to the heaviness of pure water, at a standard 
temperature, which in the United States is 62° Fahr. To 
convert specific gravity, as estimated in the United States 
into heaviness in lbs. to the cubic foot, multiply by 62.355 


MEASURES OF PRESSURE. 


The intensity of pressure is expressed in units of weight 
on the unit of area, as pounds on the square inch; or by 
the height of a column of some fluid; or in atmospheres , 
the unit in this case being the average pressure of the at¬ 
mosphere at the level of the sea. The following table 
gives a comparison of various units, in which the intensi¬ 
ties of pressures are commonly expressed: 


Pounds 
on the 
square foot. 


One pound on the square inch.... 
One pound on the square foot... 
One inch of mercury (that is 
weight of a column of mer¬ 
cury at 32° Falir., one in. high) 
One foot of water (at 39.1° Fahr) 

One inch of water. 

One atmosphere, of 29.922 inches 
of mercury, or 760 millimetres 
One foot of air at 32° Fahr., and 
under the pressure of one at¬ 
mosphere ... 


144 

1 


70.7275 

62.425 

5.2021 


2116.3 

0.080728 


Pounds 
on the 
square inch. 

1 


0.491163 

0.4335 

0.036125 

14.7 


0.0005606 






172 


Comparison of Heads of water in Feet with Pressures 
in Various Units. 

One ft. of water at 52.53° Fahr. = 62.4 lbs. on the sq. ft. 

44 44 0.4333 lb. on the sq. in. 

44 44 0.0295 atmosphere. 

44 44 0.8823 in. of mere, at 32° 

( ft. of air at 32°, 
44 44 773. j and one at- 

( mosphere. 

One lb. on the sq. ft. 0.016026 | 

44 44 in.. 2.308 ft. of water. 

One atmosphere of 29.922 in. of 

mercury... 33.9 

One in. of mercury at 32° . 1.1334 44 44 

One ft. of air at 32°, and one at¬ 
mosphere. 0.001294 44 

One ft. of average sea water. 1.026 ft. of pure water. 


MEASURES OF WORK 

are expressed in units of weight lifted through a unit of 
height; as in lbs. lifted one foot, called foot-pounds. 


MEASURES OF POWER 

are expressed in units of work done in a unit of time; as 
in foot-pounds per second, per minute, or per hour; or in 
conventional units called horse-powers. 

One horse-power , United States measure, = 550 foot¬ 
pounds per second = 33,000 foot-pounds per minute = 
1,980,000 foot-pounds per hour. 


THE STATICAL MOMENT 

of a given weight, relatively to a given vertical plane, is 
the product of the weight into its horizontal distance from 
that plane, and is expressed in the same sort of units with 
work. 

Comparison of Measures of Statical Moment. 


Inch-lb. 




12 

1 ft- 

lb. 


112 

»* = 

= 1 inch-cwt. 

1,344 

112 

12 

= 1 foot-ewt. 

2,240 

186| 

20 

If = 1 inch 

26,880 

2240 

240 

20 12 = 1 


foot-ton. 











173 


ABSOLUTE UNITS OF FORCE. 

The “absolute unit of force” is a term used to denote the 
force which, acting on a unit of mass for a unit of time, 
produces a unit of velocity. 

The unit of time employed is always a second. 

The unit of velocity is one foot per second. 

The unit of mass is the mass of so much matter as 
weighs one unit of weight near the level of the sea, and in 
some definite latitude. 

The unit of weight chosen is, sometimes a grain, some¬ 
times a pound avoirdupois; and it is equal to 32.187 of the 
corresponding absolute units of force. 

The proportions borne to each other by the absolute 
units of force in different countries are nearly the same as 
those of the units of work, and would be exactly the same 
but for the variation of the force of gravity in the latitude. 


LIGHT. 

Velocity of light, 192,000 miles per second, nearly. 

Decomposition of Light. 

Violet = maximum chemical ray. 
Indigo. , 

Blue. 

Green. 

Yellow = maximum light ray. 

Orange. 

Red = maximum heat ray. 


COMBINATIONS OF COLOR. 


Primaries. 
Red and yellow 
Red and Blue ... 
Yellow and blue 


Secondary, 
form Orange. 
“ Purple. 
“ Green. 


Secondaries. 
Orange and purple 
Orange and Green. 
Purple and Green. 


Tertiary, 
form Rrown. 

“ Grey. 

li Broken Green 










174 


CONTRASTS OF COLOR. 


Primary colors. 

Red. 

Yellow. 

Blue. 


Secondary in contrast Tertiary in contrast 
to pi imary. to secondary. 

.Green.Brown. 

.Purple. .Grey. 

.Orange. .Broken Green. 


SOUND. 


Velocity in Ft. per second. 

Air. 1,142 

Water. 4^900 

Iron .17,500 


Velocity in 
Copper ... 

Wood . 


Ft. per second. 

. 10,378 

( 12,000 
( to 16,000 


Distant sounds may be heard on a still day: 

Human voice. 150 yds. I Military band... 5,200 yds. 

Rifle.5,300 “ I Cannon.35,000 “ 


TO MEASUBE DISTANCES BY SOUND. 

Rule : Multiply the time the sound takes in seconds by 
1142; the product will be the distance in feet. 

Note. —Sound in common air moves uniformly at the 
rate of about 1,142 feet in a second. Cold and uneven sur¬ 
faces retard its motion a little, and heat accelerates it in a 
small degree. 

Example 1 : I observed the flash of a gun 30 seconds be¬ 
fore I heard the report. How far was it distant from me ? 

Answer .—30 X 1,142 = 34,260 ft. 

Example 2 : I observed a flash of lightning, and after 
6 strokes of my pulse I heard the thunder, and my pulse 
makes 68 strokes in a minute. How far was the thunder 
distant from me ? 


Answer .—1 mile, 255.3 yards. 


















175 


MISCELLANEOUS ARTICLES. 

Barrel of tar. 261 gallons. 

Cable’s length.240 yards. 

Cask of black lead. 11| cwt. 

English Chaldron of coal. 25|-cwt. 

“ “ coke. 12^ to 15 cwt. 

Chaldron of coal, heaped measure. 36 bushels. 

Cord of wood.128 cubic feet. 

Dozen. 12 articles. 

Fagot of steel.120 lbs. 

Fodder of lead. 191 cwt. 

Gross. 12 dozen. 

Great gross. 12 gross. 

Bushel of wheat. 60 pounds. 

“ “ indian corn. 56 “ 

“ “ oats. 32 

“ “rye . 56 “ 

“ “ wheat bran. 20 “ 

Firkin of butter. 56 “ 

Quintal of dry salt fish.100 “ 

Cask of raisins.100 “ 

Barrel of flour.196 “ 

Barrel of beef, pork or fish... .200 “ 

Pig of ballast. 56 “ 

Quire of paper. 24 sheets. 

Ream of paper. 20 quires or 480 sheets. 

Bundle. 2 reams. 

Bale. 5 bundles. 

Roll of parchment. 60 skins. 

Score . 20 articles. 


Sheet of paper folded into— 

2 leaves is termed folio size. 


4 

44 

• 4 

4to. or quarto. 

8 

44 

44 

8vo. or octavo. 

12 

44 

44 

12mo. or duodecimo. 

16 

44 

44 

16mo. 

18 

44 

44 

18mo. 

24 

44 

44 

24mo. 

48 

44 

44 

48mo. 






























I 


176 


The Feeding Properties of Different Vegetables, 


In comparison with 10 Bos. of hay. 

Hay. 

Clover hay. 

Vetch hay. 

Wheat straw.. 

Barley straw. 

Oat straw. 

Pea straw.. 

Potatoes. 

Old potatoes.. 

Turnips . 

Carrots . 


Cabbage.30 

Peas and beans. 2 


Wheat... 

Barley... . 

Oats.. 

Rye. 

Indian corn. 

Bran.. 

Oil-cake. 

Thus, 2 lbs. of oil-cake is worth as much as 55 lbs. 
straw. 


10 

8 

4 
52 
52 
55 

6 
28 
40 
60 
35 
to 40 
to 3 

5 

6 

5 

5 

6 

5 

2 

of oat 


USEFUL INFORMATION. 

In Kentucky, 80 pounds of bituminous or cannel coal 
make a bushel. 

In Illinois, 80 pounds of bituminous coal make a bushel. 

In Missouri, 80 pounds of bituminous coal make a bushel. 

In Indiana, 70 pounds of bituminous coal make a bushel. 

In Pennsylvania, 76 pounds of bituminous coal make a 
bushel. 

Coal, corn in the ear, fruit and roots are sold by heaped 
measure, that is, the bushel is heaped in the form of a 
cone, which cone must be 19| inches in diameter (equal to 
the outside diameter of the standard bushel measure), and 
at least 6 inches in height. 

Grain and some other commodities are sold by stricken 
measure, that is, the measure is to be stricken with a round 
stick or roller, straight and of the same diameter from end 
to end. 

Glazing and stone-cutting are estimated by the square ft. 






















177 


Painting, plastering, paving, ceiling and paper-hanging 
are estimated by the square yard. 

In estimating the paintings of mouldings, cornices, &c., 
the measuring line is carried into all the mouldings and 
cornices. 

Flooring, partitioning, roofing, slating and tiling are 
estimated by the square of 100 square feet. 

A thousand shingles are estimated to cover 1 square, 
being laid 5 inches to the weather. 

A span is the distance that can be reached between the 
end of the middle finger and the end of the thumb. 
Among sailors, 8 spans are equal to 1 thumb. 

A geographic mile is the distance around the 

centre of the earth. 

A square mile of land is called a section. 

A Gunter’s chain, used by land surveyors, is 4 rods or 06 
feet long, and consists of 100 links. 7.92 inches make a 
link. 

Canal and railroad engineers use an engineer’s chain, 
which consists of 100 links, each 1 foot long. 


TABLE OF COLORS. 

Used in Architectural and Mechanical Drawing. 


Work. 

Brickwork in plan or section.. 

“ in elevation. 

“ to be removed by 

alterations, flintwork or lead 

Concrete works, stone. 

Clay, earth. 

Granite . 

Timber (oak excepted). 

Oak, teak. 

Fir, and most other timber. 

Mahogany. 

Cast iron, and wrought iron in 

the rough. 

Wrought iron, bright. 

Steel, bright. 

Brass . 

Gun metal. 

Meadow land. 

Sky effects. 


Color. 

Carmine, or crimson lake. 
Venetian red. 

Prussian blue. 

Sepia. 

Burnt umber. 

Purple madder. 

Raw sienna. 

Burnt sienna. 

Indian yellow. 

Indian red. 

Payne’s grey. 

Indigo. 

Indigo, with a little lake. 
Gamboge. 

Dark cadmium. 

Hooker’s green. 

Cobalt blue. 

















PRESS OF 

THE STANDARD PUBLISHING CO., 
POTTSVILLE. PA. 


Wren's Patent Grate Bar 

ALLISON, JOHN & CO., Ft 



Fans, Castings, Boilers, Wheels 

AND ALL KINDS OF 



The most durable bar in the market. Send for circular. 





































VARIETY METAL BOOM, 

Iron Foundry and Machine Shop. 



By Direct Radiation, in all its Branches. 

Boilers, Radiators, Pipes, 

VALVES, FITTINGS, &c. 

Brass and other Metal Moulding, 

CASTING AND FINISHING. 

Noiseless Vertical Engines, 

HYDRANTS, FIRE PLUGS, &c., &c. 

STEAM HEATING A SPECIALTY. 

All kinds of Castings at Short Notice and Reasonable Charges, 

By Fra’s B. Bannan, 

Corner Railroad and Howard Streets. 


Pottsville, Schuylkill Co., Pa. 



F, B, Parrish's Patent Table Telegraph for Picking Slate 



& 03 aj 
cd P w 

&C +3 

« © ce 

0 r"H 

> <d ^ 
§ 43 8 
W 5 *3 

>> CD 
-P P 
CQ jD 


£ 

W 

cu 

w 

Pi 

Pi 

C 

PQ 

i 

co 

W 

J 

PH 

£ 

tc 

C/D 

(H 

P^ 

Oi 

< 

PH 

PQ 



















































GEO. W. BEDDALL & BRO., 


BRICK HARDWARE STORE, 

Cor. Main and Centre Streets, 

SHENANDOAH, PA., 

DEALERS IN 

MINE SUPPLIES 


OF EVERY DESCRIPTION. 


AGENTS FOR ALL THE LEADING 


MINING DRILLS. 


It will be to the advantage of those wishing to buy to 
write to us for prices. 


PRICE, POST PAID $4.00. 

Reference Book of Practical and Scientific Infor¬ 
mation for the use of Colliery Managers. 

BY W. WARDLE, M. E., C. C. 



-A. duress. 


The Mining Herald Company, Lim., 

No. 15 SOUTH MAIN STREET, SHENANDOAH, PA. 


FIG. 49 IN REFERENCE BOOK. 

Question 327 in Reference Book.— If you had an incline plane lying at angle of 1 in 5 or the vertical rise was 20 feet 
in every 100 in length, what power or equivalent weight would you require to balance a load of 500 lbs., reckoning friction 
at one eighty-second of the load. (See Reference Book for a number of questions and figures on this subject.) 





The Le Grand 



A law passed compells coal operators to furnish ambulances 
to convey wounded men from the mines to their homes. 
The LE GRAND AMBULANCE has been 
built to comply with this law. 

They Have a Patent Wheel, 

PLATFORM SPRINGS, 

A panelled body, double doors in the rear, win¬ 
dows on sides and in the doors. Gearing 
painted a light green and body dark 
green. Striped and ornamented in gold bronze. 
Body inside is upholstered from top to bottom. 


Extra Half Spring and Roller Floor Inside, and Two Stretchers, with Spring 
Legs and Pull Out Handles. Finished Throughout with the best Material. 


Now in use by the Lehigh and Wilkes-Barre Coal Co, Lehigh Val¬ 
ley Coal Co., Delaware and Hudson Canal Co., Wyoming Valley Coal 
Co., Coxe Bros. & Co , and all other operators in the Middle and 
Southern Districts of Carbon and Luzerne counties. For further 
particulars, address 


H 


¥IS 4 LE ^ GRAND 


CARRIAGE BUILDER, 


WILKES-BARRE, PENNA- 


















MINING HERA 

AND COLLIERY GUARDIAN. 


A Journal making a specialty of the Mining of Coal and 
Iron , and paying particular attention to the folloiving sub¬ 
jects : 


1. —Mine Ventilation. 

2. —Practical Mining with respect to Methods of 

Working Under Ground. 

3. —Mine Surveying. 

4. —Mechanical Engineering of Collieries—Winding, 

Pumping, Breaker, Dumping and Screening Ma¬ 
chinery, Ropes, Cages, Conductors, Etc. 

5. —Boring, Sinking, Tunneling, Tubing, W ailing, &c 

6. —Underground Haulage* 

7. —Preparation of Coal for Market. 

8. —Transportation of Coal. 

9. -Mine Fires. 

10. —Physical Sciences Connected with Mining. 

Sent, postage paid, to any part of the United States or the Canadas 
for 82.00 per annum. 81.00 for six months. To foreign countries, post¬ 
age paid, 83.00 per annum. 

Address, 

^lie jjeralfl ^o., JimileS, 

No. 15 South Main Street, 

SHENANDOAH, SCHUYLKILL CO., PA. 


TO ADVERTISERS : 

The Mining Herald is the best advertising medium in the coun¬ 
try for all articles and machinery used in coal mines, and it is read 
by every Coal land owner, Operator, Mine Superintendent, Boss and 
Miner from California to Pennsylvania, who is intelligent and am¬ 
bitious enough to take advantage of the opportunities presented to 
improve his knowledge of the industry with which he is connected. 





FRMKLIN IRON WORKS, 

POET CARBON, SCHUYLKILL CO., HENNA. 


ROBERT ALLISON, 


MANUFACTURER OF 


ALLISON’S PATENT CATARACT STEAM PUM P 


High Pressure, Compound and Condensing, with or without the new 
Isochronal Valve Movement. 


STEAM ENGINES, MINING MACHINERY, NATIONAL 
DRILL AND COMPRE-SOR COMPANY’S 


Rock Drills and Air Compressors, 


With Allison’s Late Improvements. 


Specialties: STEAM PUMPS, ROCK DRILLS AND AIR COMPRESSORS 



JEANESVILLE IRON WORKS, 

Jeanesville, Luzerne Co., Pa., 

(J. C. HAYDON & CO.) 

MANUFACTURE 



And all Kinds of Mining Machinery. 

Particular attention given to the following Specialties : 

THE ALLISON STEAM PUMP, 


THE UMMOLTZ GRATE BAR, 

Mine Car Wheels and. the 

WOOTEN APPARATUS 


For Burning Coal Dust Under Steam Boilers. 


HOWELL GREEN, Supt. 



THI 


LIBRARY OF CONGRESS 



SND COLLIERY GU KKDlM r mm 


si Journal oj the Coal and Iron Mining 
Interests. 


SENT POSTAGE PAID TO ANY PART OF THE UNITED 
STATES FOR $2.00 PER ANNUM, IF PAID IN 
ADVANCE. TO FOREIGN COUNTRIES, 
POSTAGE PAID, $3.00 per Annum. 


OFFICE : 

No. IB South Main Street, Shenandoah, 

SCHUYLKILL COUNTY, PA. 


The Mining Herald is published in the centre of the heav¬ 
iest producing area in the Anthracite Coal region. It pays 
particular attention to the technics of Mining and publishes, 
weekly, articles on 

VENTILATION, 

METHODS OF WORKING, 

IMPROVEMENTS IN MINE MACHINERY, 
.HE ARTS AND SCIENCES CONNECTED WITH MINING, 

&.C., &.C., &.C. 

Mine owners, Mine foremen, arid intelligent miners cannot 
afford to be without it, and to those who wish to advance them¬ 
selves in technical knowledge it is a most valuable assistant. 

It circulates among mine managers and miners in all parts 
cf the country, and is an excellent advertising medium for all 
articles and machinery used in mines. 

For rates of adve 'using, address 

THE MINING HERALD COMPANY, LIMITED, 

Shenandoah, Schuylkill County, Pa. 












































































